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Food Poisoning and Staphylococcus aureus Enterotoxins

María Ángeles Argudín, María Carmen Mendoza, María Rosario Rodicio

Toxins · 2010 · Review · CC BY

doi:10.3390/toxins2071751

Abstract

Staphylococcus aureus produces a wide variety of toxins including staphylococcal enterotoxins (SEs; SEA to SEE, SEG to SEI, SER to SET) with demonstrated emetic activity, and staphylococcal-like (SEl) proteins, which are not emetic in a primate model (SElL and SElQ) or have yet to be tested (SElJ, SElK, SElM to SElP, SElU, SElU2 and SElV). SEs and SEl s have been traditionally subdivided into classical (SEA to SEE) and new (SEG to SElU2) types. All possess superantigenic activity and are encoded by accessory genetic elements, including plasmids, prophages, pathogenicity islands, νSa genomic islands, or by genes located next to the staphylococcal cassette chromosome (SCC) implicated in methicillin resistance. SEs are a major cause of food poisoning, which typically occurs after ingestion of different foods, particularly processed meat and dairy products, contaminated with S. aureus by improper handling and subsequent storage at elevated temperatures. Symptoms are of rapid onset and include nausea and violent vomiting, with or without diarrhea. The illness is usually self-limiting and only occasionally it is severe enough to warrant hospitalization. SEA is the most common cause of staphylococcal food poisoning worldwide, but the involvement of other classical SEs has been also demonstrated. Of the new SE/SEls, only SEH have clearly been associated with food poisoning. However, genes encoding novel SEs as well as SEls with untested emetic activity are widely represented in S. aureus, and their role in pathogenesis may be underestimated.

Full text

From PubMed Central, U.S. National Library of Medicine, as current on Oct 17, 2026. Paragraph numbers are ours, so an answer can point at one.

1. Staphylococcal Food Poisoning

Staphylococcal food poisoning (SFP) is an intoxication that results from the consumption of foods containing sufficient amounts of one (or more) preformed enterotoxin. Symptoms of SFP have a rapid onset (2–8 h), and include nausea, violent vomiting, abdominal cramping, with or without diarrhea. The disease is usually self-limiting and typically resolves within 24–48 h after onset. Occasionally it can be severe enough to warrant hospitalization, particularly when infants, elderly or debilitated people are concerned.

Food handlers carrying enterotoxin-producing S. aureus in their noses or on their hands are regarded as the main source of food contamination, via manual contact or through respiratory secretions. In fact, S. aureus is a common commensal of the skin and mucosal membranes of humans, with estimates of 20–30% for persistent and 60% for intermittent colonization. Because S. aureus does not compete well with indigenous microbiota in raw foods, contamination is mainly associated with improper handling of cooked or processed foods, followed by storage under conditions which allow growth of S. aureus and production of the enterotoxin(s). However, S. aureus is also present in food animals, and dairy cattle, sheep and goats, particularly if affected by subclinical mastitis, are likely contaminants of milk. Air, dust, and food contact surfaces can also serve as vehicles in the transfer of S. aureus to foods.

Foods that have been frequently incriminated in staphylococcal intoxication include meat and meat products, poultry and egg products, milk and dairy products, salads, bakery products, particularly cream-filled pastries and cakes, and sandwich fillings. Salted food products, such as ham, have also been implicated, according to the capacity of S. aureus to grow at relatively low water activity (aw = 0.86;).

SFP is a common disease whose real incidence is probably underestimated for a number of reasons, which include misdiagnosis, unreported minor outbreaks, improper sample collection and improper laboratory examination. The control of this disease is of social and economic importance. In fact, it represents a considerable burden in terms of loss of working days and productivity, hospital expenses, and economical losses in food industries, catering companies and restaurants.

2. Staphylococcus aureus Enterotoxins

The S. aureus enterotoxins (SEs) are potent gastrointestinal exotoxins synthesized by S. aureus throughout the logarithmic phase of growth or during the transition from the exponential to the stationary phase. They are active in high nanogram to low microgram quantities, and are resistant to conditions (heat treatment, low pH) that easily destroy the bacteria that produce them, and to proteolytic enzymes, hence retaining their activity in the digestive tract after ingestion.

2.1. Nomenclature

SEs belong to the broad family of pyrogenic toxin superantigens (SAgs;). SAgs bypass conventional antigen recognition by interaction with major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules on the surface of antigen presenting cells, and with T-cell receptors (TCR) on specific T-cell subsets. Interaction typically occurs to the variable region of the TCR β chain (Vβ) but binding to the TCR Vα domain has been reported. This leads to activation of a large number of T-cells followed by proliferation and massive release of chemokines and proinflammatory cytokines that may led to potentially lethal toxic shock syndrome. However, staphylococcal enterotoxins have been proposed to be named according to their emetic activities. Only SAgs that induce vomiting after oral administration in a primate model will be designated as SEs. Related toxins that lack emetic activity or have not been tested for it should be designated as staphylococcal enterotoxin-like (SEls) SAgs. Also, newly discovered toxins with more than 90% amino acid sequence identity with existing SEs or SEls should be designated as a numbered subtype. However, despite this consensus nomenclature some subtypes are still just called variants.

At the time of this review, the repertoire of S. aureus SEs/SEls comprised 22 members, excluding molecular variants: (i) the classical SEA, SEB, SEC (with the SEC1, SEC2 and SEC3, SEC ovine and SEC bovine variants), SED and SEE, which were discovered in studies of S. aureus strains involved in SFP outbreaks, and classified in distinct serological types; and (ii) the new types of SEs (SEG, SEH, SEI, SER, SES, SET) and SEls (SElJ, SElK, SElL, SElM, SElN, SElO, SElP, SElQ, SElU, SElU2, and SElV). TSST-1, the toxic shock staphylococcal toxin, initially designated as SEF, lacks emetic activity.

2.2. Structure

SEs and SEls constitute a family of structurally related exoproteins that range in size from ~22 to 28 kDa (Table 1). Based on amino acid sequence comparisons, they have been distributed into four or five groups (Table 2), depending on the inclusion or not of SEH within group 1. The recently described SET is most related to a putative exotoxin from an S. aureus isolate involved in bovine mastitis, and to streptococcal pyrogenic toxin type K (SpeK). TSST-1, which is functionally a superantigen with no emetic activity, is more distant to SEs and SEls than to SSLs (staphylococcal superantigen-like proteins). The SSLs, first identified by screening staphylococcal genomes using two conserved amino acid motifs placed in the N-terminal and C-terminal domains of SAgs, are not mitogenic to T cells and do not bind MHC class II, although they display a wide array of activities targeting key elements of the innate and specific immunity, such as neutrophils, complement factor C5, and IgA.

The three-dimensional structures of TSST-1 and several SEs and SEls have been solved by crystallography (Table 1). The structures are remarkably conserved, although they interact differently with MHC class II molecules, and show different TCR specificity. They are compact ellipsoidal proteins with two unequal domains separated by a shallow grove. The larger C-terminal domain is a β-grasp fold consisting of four- to five-strand β-sheet that packs against a highly conserved α-helix. The smaller N-terminal domain consists of a mixed β-barrel with Greek-key topology, similar to the OB (oligosaccharide/oligonucleotide binding)-fold also found in many other bacterial toxins (SSLs, streptococcal superantigens, nucleases and toxins of the AB5 family, including cholera and pertussis toxins, and verotoxin). The two domains are stabilized by close packing and by a section of the N-terminus that extends over the top of the C-terminal domain. The N-terminal extension contributes substantially to the TCR-binding site, located in the cleft between the two protein domains, while the MHC class II binding site is in the OB-fold. The top of the N-terminal domain usually contains a highly flexible disulfide loop, which has been implicated with emetic activity (see below).

2.3. Mode of Action

Important efforts have been made to identify specific amino acids and domains within SEs which may be important for emesis, but results are still limited and controversial. Like TSST-1, SElL, and SElQ are nonemetic, while SEI displays weak emetic activity. These toxins lack the disulfide loop characteristically found at the top of the N-terminal domain of other SEs. Nonetheless, the loop itself does not appear to be an absolute requirement for emesis, although it may stabilize a crucial conformation important for this activity. Carboxymethylation of histidines on SEA or SEB generates proteins devoid of enterotoxicity, which still retain superantigenicity. Analysis of the effects of carboxymethylation of each of the SEA histidines revealed that His61 is important for emesis, but not for T-cell proliferation. Conversely, Leu48Gly and Phe44Ser mutant forms of SEA and SEB, respectively, do not bind MHC class II molecules or cause T-cell activation, but still provoke vomiting, hence separating emesis and superantigenicity as different functions of the proteins. Despite this, a high correlation exists between the two activities since, in most cases, genetic mutations resulting in a loss of superantigen activity also results in loss of emetic activity.

In contrast to the case of many other bacterial enterotoxins, specific cells and receptors in the digestive system have not been unequivocally linked to oral intoxication by a SE. It has been suggested that SEs stimulate the vagus nerve in the abdominal viscera, which transmits the signal to the vomiting center in the brain. Supporting this idea, receptors on vagal afferent neurons are essential for SEA-triggered emesis, and capsaicin, a small molecular weight compound from chilli peppers that depletes peptidergic sensory nerve fibers, also diminishes SE effects in mammals. In addition, SEs are able to penetrate the gut lining and activate local and systemic immune responses. Release of inflammatory mediators (including histamine, leukotrienes, and neuroenteric peptide substance P) causes vomiting and the emetic response can be eliminated by H2- and calcium channel-blockers, which also block the release of histamine. Local immune system activation could also be responsible for the gastrointestinal damage associated with SE ingestion. Inflammatory changes are observed in several regions of the gastrointestinal tract, but the most severe lesions appear in the stomach and the upper part of the small intestine. The diarrhea sometimes associated with SEs intoxication may be due to the inhibition of water and electrolyte reabsorption in the small intestine. In an attempt to link the two distinct activities of SEs, i.e., superantigenicity and enterotoxicity, it has been postulated that enterotoxin activity could facilitate transcitosis, enabling the toxin to enter the bloodstream and circulate through the body, thus allowing the interaction with antigen presenting- and T-cells that leads to superantigen activity. In this way, circulation of SEs following ingestion of SEs as well as their spread from a S. aureus infection site, could have more profound effects upon the host versus if the toxin remains localized.

2.4. Enterotoxin Gene Location

All se and sel genes are located on accessory genetic elements, including plasmids, prophages, S. aureus pathogenicity islands (SaPIs), genomic island vSa, or next to the staphylococcal cassette chromosome (SCC) elements (Table 1). Most of these are mobile genetic elements, and their spread among S. aureus isolates can modify their ability to cause disease and contribute to the evolution of this important pathogen.

2.4.1. Plasmids

Plasmids have been long recognized as efficient vehicles for the spread of resistance and virulence determinants through horizontal gene transfer. In S. aureus, two kinds of plasmids carrying se/sel genes have been characterized (Table 1; Figure 1). Both contain sej and ser associated with either sed (pIB485-like) or with ses and set (pF5).

The first plasmid described to carry an enterotoxin gene was pIB485, a 27.6 kilobase (kb) plasmid, in which first sed and latter selj were identified. Enterotoxin SER was discovered by in S. aureus strains associated with a food poisoning outbreak that occurred in Fukuoka City, Japan, in 1997, and the ser gene was shown to be located on a family of closely related plasmids, termed pF5 and pF5-like. These plasmids have similar restriction profiles and carry selj along with ser. More recently, two novel SE genes (ses and set) have also been detected on the Fukuoka plasmids. Interestingly, the ser gene, together with sed and selj, has also been found in pIB485-like plasmids from laboratory strains, food poisoning outbreak isolates and healthy human isolates in Japan and pIB485-like plasmids, varying in size and/or restriction profile were present in S. aureus isolates recovered in Spain from human nasal carriers and manually handled foods. Two of them, named pUO-Sa-SED1 (~33 kb) and pUO-Sa-SED2 (~36 kb), carried sed, selj and ser, and have restriction patterns identical or similar to that of pIB485, while pUO-Sa-SED3 (53.5 kb; containing sed, selj and ser-like) has a different profile. A BLAST search (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov) of the sed, selj, ser, ses and set genes revealed additional pIB485-like and pF5-like plasmids obtained from human clinical isolates, whose sequences have been deposited in databases. At present, the evolutionary relationship between the two types of plasmids is unknown.

2.4.2. Prophages

Like most published S. aureus phages, those carrying se genes (sea, selk, selp and selq) belong to the Siphoviridae family. The temperate, tailed bacteriophages within this family have been classified according to three features: (i) the lysogeny module, particularly the integrase that dictates the insertion site of the phage in the bacterial chromosome; (ii) the serogroup, based on differences in capsid, tail, and tail appendix proteins; and (iii) the holin gene of the lysis module. The Siphoviridae prophages carrying se genes belong to integrase group Sa3, serogroups Fa and Fb, and holin groups 255a and 255b. Three se/sel genes (sea, selk and selq) are present together in ФSa3ms and ФSa3mw, while a single se/sel gene (sea or selp) is carried by other prophages (Table 1; Figure 2).

Apart from enterotoxins, virulence factors involved in evasion of the innate immunity are also encoded on these phages. These include the chemotaxis inhibitory protein (CHIP, product of the chp gene) that binds to host chemokine receptors, particularly the C5a receptor and the formylated peptide receptor, preventing neutrophil chemotaxis and activation; the staphylococcal complement inhibitor (SCIN, encoded by the scn gene) that interferes with all pathways of complement activation by blocking C3 convertases; the staphylokinase (product of the sak gene) that leads to degradation of two major opsonins (IgG and C3b) through activation of surface-bound plasminogen into plasmin, and also inhibits the bactericidal effect of α-defensins. The region encoding these virulence factors is known as the "innate inmune evasion cluster" and is located at one or both ends of the phages. Integration of these phages into the S. aureus chromosome occurs by a site-specific recombination event between the attP site in the phage genome and the attB site located within the β-hemolysin gene in the bacterial chromosome. While integration negatively converts β-hemolysin expression, it supplies other virulence genes.

2.4.3. Staphylococcus aureus Pathogenicity Islands

The SaPIs are mobile pathogenicity islands, which are widely distributed in S. aureus and have also been found in other species of Staphylococcus. SaPIs have a highly conserved overall organization, parallel to that of typical temperate bateriophages. Each one occupies a specific chromosomal site (attS), and always appears in the same orientation. From its integration site, the island can be induced to excise and replicate by one or more specific staphylococcal helper phages. Following replication the SaPI DNA is efficiently encapsidated into infectious small-headed phage-like particles resulting in extremely high transfer frequencies.

SaPIs are very common in S. aureus (Table 1). They range in size from 15–17 kb, with the exceptions of SaPIbov2 (27 kb) and a highly degenerated SaPI (3.14 kb) present in some sequenced genomes. The complete nucleotide sequence is known for 20 SaPIs, and some of them carry genes encoding TSST-1 and/or one or more SEs (Figure 3). For instance, tst is found together with selk and selq in SaPI1, with sec3 and sell in SaPIm1 and SaPIn1, and with sell and sec in SaPIbov1; seb, selq and selk have been reported in SaPI3; selk and selq in SaPI5; and sec4 and sell2 in SaPImw2. Induction of a SaPI is likely to originate an increase in the copy number of the toxin genes, and therefore to an increase in toxin production, as described for lysogenic phages.

2.4.4. vSa Genomic Islands

The term vSa refers to non-phage and non-SCC genomic islands that are exclusively present in S. aureus, often (but not always) encode virulence determinants, are inserted at specific loci in the chromosome and are associated with either intact or remnant DNA recombinases. Two major vSa genomic islands, namely vSaα and vSaβ, each of about 20–30 kb, are present in all S. aureus genomes sequenced so far, but absent in other Staphylococcus species, including S. epidermidis. Though vSaα and vSaβ could have been acquired by horizontal gene transfer, actually there is not evidence that they can move. Each of these islands carries two copies of the genes encoding the recognition (hsdS) and methylation (hsdM) subunits of the Sau1 type I restriction-modification system. A single copy of the gene for the restriction subunit is located elsewhere in the S. aureus chromosome. The hsdS genes of the Sau1 system diverge significantly between members of different lineages and this determines variations in the sequences that will be specifically recognized as targets for modification through methylation. Since only modified sequences will be protected against restriction, exchange of DNA between members of same lineage will be allowed, while DNA transferred between isolates of different lineages will be digested. Because of this, the Sau1 system has been considered as a key factor in the control of lineage evolution.

Both vSaα and vSaβ contain clusters of genes encoding known or putative virulence factors. vSaα carries a cluster of lipoprotein-encoding genes (lpl cluster), and the set (staphylococcal exotoxin-like) cluster, later re-named as the ssl (staphylococcal superantigen-like) cluster. The ssl cluster consists of a series of related genes (between 7 and 11) coding for proteins that share a common architecture with SAgs but do not function as such. However, they have alternative effects on the host immune system, acting on IgA, complement factor C5 (as demonstrated for SSL7;), or neutrophils (SSL5 and SSL11). vSaβ carries a serine protease gene (spl) cluster, genes for the components of the LukED leukocidin (lukD and lukE), genes for lantibiotic biosynthesis (bsa) and/or the enterotoxin gene cluster (egc), which includes a variable number of se/sel genes forming an operon. Two representative types of vSaβ, the genomic island carrying se genes, are showed in Figure 4.

It has been suggested that the egc cluster arose from an ancestral se gene, through tandem duplication and further variation, while gene recombination has created variant toxins with different biological activities. The dynamic evolution of this cluster that has been considered as a nursery of se/sel genes is reflected in the number of variants already known (Figure 5).

The first egc (egc1) was discovered in 2001 and consists of two SE genes (seg and sei), three SEl genes (selm, seln and selo), and two pseudogenes (φent1 and φent2). Afterward, a second egc variant (egc2) containing an additional SEl gene (selu) was described. The latter gene has been generated by fusion of the two egc1 pseudogenes, due to a 15 nucleotide insertion in φent1 and a single adenine deletion that abolishes a stop codon within the same gene. In addition, allelic variants of each of the egc2 genes compose the egc3 cluster, and a new selu variant (selu2) and a novel sel gene (selv) are present in egc4. A recombination event between selm and sei produced selv, while deletion of one adenine between the overlapping 5’ and 3’ ends of the φent2 and φent1 pseudogenes generated selu2 (which was proposed to be renamed as selw). Incomplete egc clusters, lacking one or more genes of the classical egc1, as well as variants carrying insertion sequences within seln, seg or sei, have also been described. These structures have been considered as evolutionary intermediates of the egc cluster. Moreover, the fact that each of the three major homology groups of SEs/SEs (Table 2) contains enterotoxins encoded by genes of the egc operon led to the proposal that all se/sels originated from the egc cluster.

2.4.5. Enterotoxin Genes in the Proximity of the Staphylococcal Cassette Chromosome

The seh gene, flanked by a truncated selo gene and a putative transposase gene, have been found in close proximity of the non-mecA containing SCC element harbored by MSSA (methicillin susceptible S. aureus) strain 476; the SCCmec type IV of S. aureus MW2; and the SCCmec type IV of a collection of highly related community-associated S. aureus (; Figure 6). In the latter strains, acquisition of the seh element could have stabilized the integration of SCCmec type IV, which is unable to excise.

2.5. Staphylococcal Enterotoxins and Food Poisoning Outbreaks

Independently of their origin, enterotoxigenic S. aureus often differ in the number of mobile genetic elements and se/sel genes therein, as well as in the enterotoxins they produce. SEA, either alone or together with other SEs/SEls, is the enterotoxin most commonly reported in foods, and is also considered as the main cause of SFP, probably due to its extraordinarily high resistance to proteolytic enzymes. The predominance of SEA is well documented in different countries. As relevant examples: (i) a comprehensive study of 359 outbreaks that occurred in the United Kingdom (UK) between 1969 and 1990 revealed that 79% of the S. aureus strains produced SEA. Meat, poultry and their products, particularly ham and chicken, were the vehicle in 75% of the incidents. SEA was detected alone in 56.9% of the outbreaks and, in conjunction with SED, SEB, SEC or SEB and SED in a lower number of outbreaks (15.4, 3.4, 2.5 or 1.1%, respectively); (ii) SEA was also the enterotoxin most frequently found among 31 SFP outbreaks in France (69.7%), which were associated with a great variety of foods including milk products, different types of meat, and salads, between 1981 and 2002. In agreement with this, sea was the most common gene in the isolates tested, followed by sed, seg, sei and she; (iii) In Austria, an SFP outbreak that affected 40 children in 2007 was attributed to S. aureus isolates producing SEA and SED. Bovine milk products were identified as the source of the outbreak, and the cows, not the dairy owner, were the more likely reservoir of the SEs-producing S. aureus; (iv) SEA was also the most common enterotoxin recovered from food poisoning outbreaks in USA (77.8% of all outbreaks) followed by SED and SEB; (v) A study of S. aureus obtained from dairy products, responsible for 16 outbreaks in Brazil revealed that the most frequently encountered enterotoxin gene was sea followed by seb. Finally, (vi) several studies have investigated the distribution of SEs and se/sel genes in S. aureus from foods and SFP outbreaks in Asian countries. Among strains recovered from patients associated with SFP outbreaks during 2001-2003 in Taiwan, sea was the most common gene, followed by seb and sec. In Korea, about 90% of food poisoning isolates were reported to contain the sea gene. SEA also was the most common SE associated to SFP in Japan. In this country, an extensive outbreak that occurred in 2000 was attributed to low-fat milk containing SEA, while a recent outbreak (2009) was due to crepes containing SEA and SEC.

SEB, SEC or SED alone have been also implicated in SFP outbreaks through the world. Interestingly, an outbreak, which affected three members of the same family in USA, was caused by coleslaw-containing SEC produced by a community-acquired methicillin resistant S. aureus from an asymptomatic food handler. The fifth classical enterotoxin, SEE, has been infrequently reported in foods and food-producing animals, and its involvement in SFP outbreaks has only been demonstrated in rare occasions. However, six SFP outbreaks, which occurred in France at the end of 2009, were caused by SEE present in soft cheese made from unpasteurized milk. This enterotoxin has also been associated with outbreaks in USA and UK.

In contrast to classical SEs, the relationship between the novel SEs/SEls and SFP is not fully understood. Among them, SEG, SEH and SEI, SER, SES, and SET have shown to be emetic after oral administration in a primate model, while the emetic activity of SElL and SElP has only been demonstrated in rabbits and the small insectivore Suncus murinus, respectively. The remaining SEls either lack emetic properties (SElQ), or have not been tested (SElJ, SElK, SElM, SElN, SElO, SElU, SElU2 and SElV). Moreover, commercial kits are not available for immunological detection of these SEs and SEls, although ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) has been described for SEH and for SEG and SEI. Of the new enterotoxins, only SEH-producing strains have clearly been involved in SFP outbreaks, but results from different researchers have shown the high incidence of genes encoding new SEs and SEls among food-borne S. aureus. Mc Lauchlin et al. revealed that 23 staphylococcal strains implicated in SFP outbreaks in UK, in which classical se genes were not detected, harbored one or more of the new se/sel genes, i.e., seg, seh, sei or selj. It is possible that the corresponding SEs might have been the cause of these outbreaks. The presence of egc genes was also shown in food-associated S. aureus from other countries, and newly described SE or SEl genes, particularly those belonging to the egc cluster, were more frequently detected in S. aureus strains isolated from raw pork and chicken meat in Korea than genes encoding classical SEs. Despite this, egc-encoded SEs or SEls have not yet been directly implied in typical cases of SFP, although SEG and SEI have been reported as the cause of chronic diarrhea associated with severe but reversible enteropathy in two malnourished neonates.

3. Conclusions

SEs and SEls produced by S. aureus belong to the fascinating family of superantigens, which sabotage the immune system of the host by targeting the innate and adaptive responses. Members of the family are well characterized with regard to superantigenic activity. However, the bases for the enterotoxigenic activity associated with a number of S. aureus superantigens remain elusive. Likewise, a direct relationship of S. aureus SEs (with demonstrated emetic activity) and SEls (which lack emetic activity or have yet to be tested) with pathogenicity has not always been established, and the reasons for the redundancy of se/sel genes within the same bacterium deserve further attention. Of particular interest is the egc cluster, regarded as a nursery of se/sel genes in continuing evolution. The cluster and its multiple variants, located on the νSaβ genomic island, are widely distributed in S. aureus of any origin, and results from our group indicate that they are the most common superantigenes in S. aureus recovered from clinical samples, healthy carriers, cows with subclinical mastitis and foods. However, a direct involvement of egc-encoded SEs in food poisoning has not been demonstrated, and attempts to elucidate their pathogenic role are still scarce. In summary, although a wealth of information on SEs and SEls is already available, they still represent an active field of research, which will certainly provide new exciting findings in forthcoming years.

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    Bergdoll M.S., Easman C.S.F., Adlam C. Enterotoxins. Staphylococci and Staphylococcal Infections. 1983;2:559-598.

    Not in our library

  23. 23.

    Evenson M.L., Hinds M.W., Bernstein R.S., Bergdoll M.S. Estimation of human dose of staphylococcal enterotoxin A from a large outbreak of staphylococcal food poisoning involving chocolate milk. Int. J. Food. Microbiol. 1988;7:311-316.

    Not in our library10.1016/0168-1605(88)90057-8

  24. 24.

    Schantz E.J., Roessler W.G., Wagman J., Spero L., Dunnery D.A., Bergdoll M.S. Purification of staphylococcal enterotoxin B. Biochemistry. 1965;4:1011-1016.

    Not in our library10.1021/bi00882a005

  25. 25.

    Fleischer B., Mittrücker H.W., Metzroth B., Braun M., Hartwig U. Mitogenic toxins as MHC class II-dependent probes for T cell antigen receptors. Behring Inst. Mitt. 1991;88:170-176.

    Not in our library

  26. 26.

    Marrack P., Kappler J. The staphylococcal enterotoxins and their relatives. Science. 1990;248:1066-1068.

    Not in our library

  27. 27.

    Petersson K., Pettersson H., Skartved N.J., Walse B., Forsberg G. Staphylococcal enterotoxin H induces V alpha-specific expansion of T cells. J. Immunol. 2003;170:4148-4154.

    Not in our library10.4049/jimmunol.170.8.4148

  28. 28.

    Thomas D.Y., Jarraud S., Lemercier B., Cozon G., Echasserieau K., Etienne J., Gougeon M.L., Lina G., Vandenesch F. Staphylocccal enterotoxin-like toxins U2 and V, two new staphylococcal superantigens arising from recombination within the enterotoxin gene cluster. Infect. Immun. 2006;74:4724-4734.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.00132-06

  29. 29.

    Thomas D., Chou S., Dauwalder O., Lina G. Diversity in Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxins. Chem. Immunol. Allergy. 2007;93:24-41.

    Not in our library10.1159/000100856

  30. 30.

    Lina G., Bohach G.A., Nair S.P., Hiramatsu K., Jouvin-Marche E., Mariuzza R. Standard nomenclature for the superantigens expressed by Staphylococcus. J. Infect. Dis. 2004;189:2334-2336.

    Not in our library10.1086/420852

  31. 31.

    Bergdoll M.S., Surgalla M.J., Dack G.M. Staphylococcal enterotoxin: Identification of a specific precipitating antibody with enterotoxin neutralizing property. J. Immunol. 1959;83:334-338.

    Not in our library

  32. 32.

    Bergdoll M.S., Borja C.R., Avena R.M. Identification of a new enterotoxin as enterotoxin C. J. Bacteriol. 1965;90:1481-1485.

    Not in our library10.1128/jb.90.5.1481-1485.1965

  33. 33.

    Bergdoll M.S., Borja C.R., Robbins R.N., Weiss K.F. Identification of enterotoxin E. Infect. Immun. 1971;4:593-595.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.4.5.593-595.1971

  34. 34.

    Casman E.P. Further serological studies of staphylococcal enterotoxin. J. Bacteriol. 1960;79:849-856.

    Not in our library10.1128/jb.79.6.849-856.1960

  35. 35.

    Casman E.P., Bennett R.W., Dorsey A.E., Issa J.A. Identification of a fourth staphylococcal enterotoxin, enterotoxin D. J. Bacteriol. 1967;94:1875-1882.

    Not in our library10.1128/jb.94.6.1875-1882.1967

  36. 36.

    Jarraud S., Peyrat M.A., Lim A., Tristan A., Bes M., Mougel C., Etienne J., Vandenesch F., Bonneville M., Lina G. egc, a highly prevalent operon of enterotoxin gene, forms a putative nursery of superantigens in Staphylococcus aureus. J. Immunol. 2001;166:669-677.

    Not in our library10.4049/jimmunol.166.1.669

  37. 37.

    Letertre C., Perelle S., Dilasser F., Fach P. Identification of a new putative enterotoxin SEU encoded by the egc cluster of Staphylococcus aureus. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2003;95:38-43.

    Not in our library10.1046/j.1365-2672.2003.01957.x

  38. 38.

    Munson S.H., Tremaine M.T., Betley M.J., Welch R.A. Identification and characterization of staphylococcal enterotoxin types G and I from Staphylococcus aureus. Infect Immun. 1998;66:3337-3348.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.66.7.3337-3348.1998

  39. 39.

    Omoe K., Imanishi K., Hu D.L., Kato H., Fugane Y., Abe Y., Hamaoka S., Watanabe Y., Nakane A., Uchiyama T., Shinagawa K. Characterization of novel staphylococcal enterotoxin-like toxin type P. Infect. Immun. 2005;73:5540-5546.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.73.9.5540-5546.2005

  40. 40.

    Ono H.K., Omoe K., Imanishi K., Iwakabe Y., Hu D.L., Kato H., Saito N., Nakane A., Uchiyama T., Shinagawa K. Identification and characterization of two novel staphylococcal enterotoxins, types S and T. Infect. Immun. 2008;76:4999-5005.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.00045-08

  41. 41.

    Orwin P.M., Leung D.Y., Donahue H.L., Novick R.P., Schlievert P.M. Biochemical and biological properties of staphylococcal enterotoxin K. Infect. Immun. 2001;69:360-366.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.69.1.360-366.2001

  42. 42.

    Orwin P.M., Leung D.Y., Tripp T.J., Bohach G.A., Earhart C.A., Ohlendorf D.H., Schlievert P.M. Characterization of a novel staphylococcal enterotoxin-like superantigen, a member of the group V subfamily of pyrogenic toxins. Biochemistry. 2002;41:14033-14040.

    Not in our library10.1021/bi025977q

  43. 43.

    Orwin P.M., Fitzgerald J.R., Leung D.Y., Gutierrez J.A., Bohach G.A., Schlievert P.M. Characterization of Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxin L. Infect. Immun. 2003;71:2916-2919.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.71.5.2916-2919.2003

  44. 44.

    Su Y.C., Wong A.C. Identification and purification of a new staphylococcal enterotoxin, H. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1995;61:1438-1443.

    Not in our library10.1128/aem.61.4.1438-1443.1995

  45. 45.

    Zhang S., Iandolo J.J., Stewart G.C. The enterotoxin D plasmid of Staphylococcus aureus encodes a second enterotoxin determinant (sej). FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 1998;168:227-233.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1574-6968.1998.tb13278.x

  46. 46.

    Bergdoll M.S., Crass B.A., Reiser R.F., Robbins R.N., Davis J.P. A new staphylococcal enterotoxin, enterotoxin F, associated with toxic-shock-syndrome Staphylococcus aureus isolates. Lancet. 1981;5:1017-1021.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0140-6736(81)92186-3

  47. 47.

    Reiser R.F., Robbins R.N., Khoe G.P., Bergdoll M.S. Purification and some physicochemical properties of toxic-shock toxin. Biochemistry. 1983;22:3907-3912.

    Not in our library10.1021/bi00285a028

  48. 48.

    Couch J.L., Soltis M.T., Betley M.J. Cloning and nucleotide sequence of the type E staphylococcal enterotoxin gene. J. Bacteriol. 1988;170:2954-2960.

    Not in our library10.1128/jb.170.7.2954-2960.1988

  49. 49.

    Uchiyama T., Imanishi K., Miyoshi-Akiyama T., Kato H., Alouf J.E., Popoff M.R. Staphylococcal superantigens and the diseases they cause. The Comprehensive Sourcebook of Bacterial Protein Toxins. 2006;830-843.

    Not in our library

  50. 50.

    Fraser J.D., Proft T. The bacterial superantigen and superantigen-like proteins. Immunol. Rev. 2008;225:226-243.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1600-065x.2008.00681.x

  51. 51.

    Baker H.M., Basu I., Chung M.C., Caradoc-Davies T., Fraser J.D., Baker E.N. Crystal structures of the staphylococcal toxin SSL5 in complex with sialyl Lewis X reveal a conserved binding site that shares common features with viral and bacterial sialic acid binding proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 2007;374:1298-1308.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.jmb.2007.09.091

  52. 52.

    Chung M.C., Wines B.D., Baker H., Langley R.J., Baker E.N., Fraser J.D. The crystal structure of staphylococcal superantigen-like protein 11 in complex with sialyl Lewis X reveals the mechanism for cell binding and immune inhibition. Mol. Microbiol. 2007;66:1342-1355.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1365-2958.2007.05989.x

  53. 53.

    Langley R., Wines B., Willoughby N., Basu I., Proft T., Fraser J.D. The staphylococcal superantigen-like protein 7 binds IgA and complement C5 and inhibits IgA-Fc alpha RI binding and serum killing of bacteria. J. Immunol. 2005;174:2926-2933.

    Not in our library10.4049/jimmunol.174.5.2926

  54. 54.

    Ramsland P.A., Willoughby N., Trist H.M., Farrugia W., Hogarth P.M., Fraser J.D., Wines B.D. Structural basis for evasion of IgA immunity by Staphylococcus aureus revealed in the complex of SSL7 with Fc of human IgA1. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2007;104:15051-15056.

    Not in our library10.1073/pnas.0706028104

  55. 55.

    Williams R.J., Ward J.M., Henderson B., Poole S., O'Hara B.P., Wilson M., Nair S.P. Identification of a novel gene cluster encoding staphylococcal exotoxin-like proteins: Characterization of the prototypic gene and its protein product, SET1. Infect. Immun. 2000;68:4407-4415.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.68.8.4407-4415.2000

  56. 56.

    Wines B.D., Willoughby N., Fraser J.D., Hogarth P.M. A competitive mechanism for staphylococcal toxin SSL7 inhibiting the leukocyte IgA receptor, Fc alphaRI, is revealed by SSL7 binding at the C alpha2/C alpha3 interface of IgA. J. Biol. Chem. 2006;281:1389-1393.

    Not in our library10.1074/jbc.m509334200

  57. 57.

    Acharya K.R., Passalacquam E.F., Jones E.Y., Harlos K., Stuart D.I., Brehm R.D., Tranter H.S. Structural basis of superantigen action inferred from crystal structure of toxic-shock syndrome toxin-1. Nature. 1994;367:94-97.

    Not in our library10.1038/367094a0

  58. 58.

    Prasad G.S., Earhart C.A., Murray D.L., Novick R.P., Schlievert P.M., Ohlendorf D.H. Structure of toxic shock syndrome toxin 1. Biochemistry. 1993;32:13761-13766.

    Not in our library10.1021/bi00213a001

  59. 59.

    Fernández M.M., Bhattacharya S., De Marzi M.C., Brown P.H., Kerzic M., Schuck P., Mariuzza R.A., Malchiodi E.L. Superantigen natural affinity maturation revealed by the crystal structure of staphylococcal enterotoxin G and its binding to T-cell receptor Vbeta8.2. Proteins. 2007;68:389-402.

    Not in our library10.1002/prot.21388

  60. 60.

    Günther S., Varma A.K., Moza B., Kasper K.J., Wyatt A.W., Zhu P., Rahman A.K., Li Y., Mariuzza R.A., McCormick J.K., Sundberg E.J. A novel loop domain in superantigens extends their T cell receptor recognition site. J. Mol. Biol. 2007;371:210-221.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.jmb.2007.05.038

  61. 61.

    Håkansson M., Petersson K., Nilsson H., Forsberg G., Björk P., Antonsson P., Svensson L.A. The crystal structure of staphylococcal enterotoxin H: implication for binding properties to MHC class II and TcR molecules. J. Mol. Biol. 2000;302:527-537.

    Not in our library10.1006/jmbi.2000.4093

  62. 62.

    Papageorgiou A.C., Acharya K.R., Shapiro R., Passalacqua E.F., Brehm R.D., Tranter H.S. Crystal structure of the superantigen enterotoxin C2 from Staphylococcus aureus reveals a zinc-binding site. Structure. 1995;3:769-779.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0969-2126(01)00212-x

  63. 63.

    Papageorgiou A.C., Tranter H.S., Acharya K.R. Crystal structure of microbial superantigen staphylococcal enterotoxin B at 1.5 A resolution: Implications for superantigen recognition by MHC class II molecules and T-cell receptors. J. Mol. Biol. 1998;277:61-79.

    Not in our library10.1006/jmbi.1997.1577

  64. 64.

    Schad E.M., Zaitseva I., Zaitsev V.N., Dohlsten M., Kalland T., Schlievert P.M., Ohlendorf D.H., Svensson L.A. Crystal structure of the superantigen staphylococcal enterotoxin type A. EMBO J. 1995;14:3292-3301.

    Not in our library10.1002/j.1460-2075.1995.tb07336.x

  65. 65.

    Singh B.R., Fu F.N., Ledoux D.N. Crystal and solution structures of superantigenic staphylococcal enterotoxins compared. Nat. Struct. Biol. 1994;1:358-360.

    Not in our library10.1038/nsb0694-358

  66. 66.

    Sundström M., Hallén D., Svensson A., Schad E., Dohlsten M., Abrahmsén L. The Co-crystal structure of staphylococcal enterotoxin type A with Zn2+ at 2.7 A resolution. Implications for major histocompatibility complex class II binding. J. Biol. Chem. 1996;271:32212-32216.

    Not in our library10.1074/jbc.271.50.32212

  67. 67.

    Sundström M., Abrahmsén L., Antonsson P., Mehindate K., Mourad W., Dohlsten M. The crystal structure of staphylococcal enterotoxin D type D reveals Zn2+ mediated homodimersation. EMBO J. 1996;15:6832-6840.

    Not in our library

  68. 68.

    Swaminathan S., Furey W., Pletcher J., Sax M. Crystal structure of staphylococcal enterotoxin B, a superantigen. Nature. 1992;359:801-806.

    Not in our library10.1038/359801a0

  69. 69.

    Swaminathan S., Furey W., Pletcher J., Sax M. Residues defining V beta specificity in staphylococcal enterotoxins. Nat. Struct. Biol. 1995;8:680-686.

    Not in our library10.1038/nsb0895-680

  70. 70.

    McCormick J.K., Yarwood J.M., Schlievert P.M. Toxic shock syndrome and bacterial superantigens: An update. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 2001;55:77-104.

    Not in our library10.1146/annurev.micro.55.1.77

  71. 71.

    Mitchell D.T., Levitt D.G., Schlievert P.M., Ohlendorf D.H. Structural evidence for the evolution of pyrogenic toxin superantigens. J. Mol. Evol. 2000;51:520-531.

    Not in our library10.1007/s002390010116

  72. 72.

    Murzin A.G. OB(oligonucleotide/oligosaccharide binding)-fold: Common structural and functional solution for non-homologous sequences. EMBO J. 1993;12:861-867.

    Not in our library10.1002/j.1460-2075.1993.tb05726.x

  73. 73.

    Hovde C.J., Marr J.C., Hoffmann M.L., Hackett S.P., Chi Y.I., Crum K.K., Stevens D.L., Stauffacher C.V., Bohach G.A. Investigation of the role of the disulphide bond in the activity and structure of staphylococcal enterotoxin C1. Mol. Microbiol. 1994;13:897-909.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1365-2958.1994.tb00481.x

  74. 74.

    Wang X., Xu M., Cai Y., Yang H., Zhang H., Zhang C. Functional analysis of the disulphide loop mutant of staphylococcal enterotoxin C2. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2009;82:861-871.

    Not in our library10.1007/s00253-008-1800-z

  75. 75.

    Alber G., Hammer D.K., Fleischer B. Relationship between enterotoxic- and T lymphocyte-stimulating activity of staphylococcal enterotoxin B. J. Immunol. 1990;144:4501-4506.

    Not in our library

  76. 76.

    Stelma G.N., Bergdoll M.S. Inactivation of staphylococcal enterotoxin A by chemical modification. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1982;105:121-126.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0006-291x(82)80019-3

  77. 77.

    Hoffman M., Tremaine M., Mansfield J., Betley M. Biochemical and mutational analysis of the histidine residues of staphylococcal enterotoxin A. Infect. Immun. 1996;64:885-890.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.64.3.885-890.1996

  78. 78.

    Harris T.O., Grossman D., Kappler J.W., Marrack P., Rich R.R., Betley M.J. Lack of complete correlation between emetic and T-cell-stimulatory activities of staphylococcal enterotoxins. Infect. Immunol. 1993;61:3175-3183.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.61.8.3175-3183.1993

  79. 79.

    Sugiyama H., Hayama T. Abdominal viscera as site of emetic action for staphylococcal enterotoxin in monkey. J. Infect. Dis. 1965;115:330-336.

    Not in our library10.1093/infdis/115.4.330

  80. 80.

    Hu D.L., Zhu G., Mori F., Omoe K., Okada M., Wakabayashi K., Kaneko S., Shinagawa K., Nakane A. Staphylococcal enterotoxin induces emesis through increasing serotonin release in intestine and it is downregulated by cannabinoid receptor 1. Cell. Microbiol. 2007;9:2267-2277.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1462-5822.2007.00957.x

  81. 81.

    Shupp J.W., Jett M., Pontzer C.H. Identification of a transcytosis epitope on staphylococcal enterotoxins. Infect. Immun. 2002;70:2178-2186.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.70.4.2178-2186.2002

  82. 82.

    Alber G., Scheuber P.H., Reck B., Sailer-Kramer B., Hartmann A., Hammer D.K. Role of substance P in immediate-type skin reactions induced by staphylococcal enterotoxin B in unsensitized monkeys. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 1989;6:880-885.

    Not in our library10.1016/0091-6749(89)90383-7

  83. 83.

    Jett M., Brinkley W., Neill R., Gemski P., Hunt R. Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxin B challenge of monkeys: Correlation of plasma levels of arachidonic acid cascade products with occurrence of illness. Infect. Immun. 1990;58:3494-3499.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.58.11.3494-3499.1990

  84. 84.

    Scheuber P.H., Denzlinger C., Wilker D., Beck G., Keppler D., Hammer D.K. Cysteinyl leukotrienes as mediators of staphylococcal enterotoxin B in the monkey. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 1987;17:455-459.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1365-2362.1987.tb01142.x

  85. 85.

    Shanahan F., Denburg J.A., Fox J., Bienenstock J., Befus D. Mast cell heterogeneity: Effects of neuroenteric peptides on histamine release. J. Inmunol. 1985;135:1331-13337.

    Not in our library

  86. 86.

    Scheuber P.H., Golecki J.R., Kickhöfen B., Scheel D., Beck G., Hammer D.K. Skin reactivity of unsensitized monkeys upon challenge with staphylococcal enterotoxin B: A new approach for investigating the site of toxin action. Infect. Immun. 1985;50:869-876.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.50.3.869-876.1985

  87. 87.

    Holmberg S.D., Blake P.A. Staphylococcal food poisoning in the United States: New facts and old misconceptions. JAMA. 1984;251:487-489.

    Not in our library

  88. 88.

    Palmer E.D. The morphologic consequences of acute exogenous (staphylococcic) gastroenteritis of the gastric mucosa. Gastroenterology. 1951;19:462-475.

    Not in our library

  89. 89.

    Kent T.H. Staphylococcal enterotoxin gastroenteritis in rhesus monkeys. Am. J. Pathol. 1966;48:387-407.

    Not in our library

  90. 90.

    Sheehan D.G., Jervis H.R., Takeuchi A., Sprinz H. The effect of staphylococcal enterotoxin on the epithelial mucosubstance of the small intestine of rhesus monkeys. Am. J. Pathol. 1970;60:1-18.

    Not in our library

  91. 91.

    Sullivan R. Effects of enterotoxin B on intestinal transport in vitro. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 1969;131:1159-1162.

    Not in our library10.3181/00379727-131-34060

  92. 92.

    Hamad A.R., Marrack P., Kappler J.W. Transcytosis of staphylococcal superantigen toxins. J. Exp. Med. 1997;185:1447-1454.

    Not in our library10.1084/jem.185.8.1447

  93. 93.

    Omoe K., Hu D.L., Takahashi-Omoe H., Nakane A., Shinagawa K. Identification and characterization of a new staphylococcal enterotoxin-related putative toxin encoded by two kinds of plasmids. Infect. Immun. 2003;71:6088-6094.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.71.10.6088-6094.2003

  94. 94.

    Bayles K.W., Iandolo J.J. Genetic and molecular analyses of the gene encoding staphylococcal enterotoxin D. J. Bacteriol. 1989;171:4799-4806.

    Not in our library10.1128/jb.171.9.4799-4806.1989

  95. 95.

    Fueyo J.M., Mendoza M.C., Martín M.C. Enterotoxins and toxic shock syndrome toxin in Staphylococcus aureus recovered from human nasal carriers and manually handled foods: Epidemiological and genetic findings. Microbes Infect. 2005;7:187-194.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.micinf.2004.10.009

  96. 96.

    Goerke C., Pantucek R., Silva Holtfreter S., Berit Schulte B., Manuel Zink M., Grumann D., Bröker B.M., Doskar J., Wolz C. Diversity of prophages in dominant Staphylococcus aureus clonal lineages. J. Bacteriol. 2009;191:3462-3468.

    Not in our library10.1128/jb.01804-08

  97. 97.

    de Haas C.J., Veldkamp K.E., Peschel A., Weerkamp F., Van Wamel W.J., Heezius E.C., Poppelier M.J., Van Kessel K.P., van Strijp J.A. Chemotaxis inhibitory protein of Staphylococcus aureus, a bacterial antiinflammatory agent. J. Exp. Med. 2004;199:687-695.

    Not in our library10.1084/jem.20031636

  98. 98.

    Rooijakkers S.H., Ruyken M., Roos A., Daha M.R., Presanis J.S., Sim R.B., van Wamel W.J., van Kessel K.P., van Strijp J.A. Immune evasion by a staphylococcal complement inhibitor that acts on C3 convertases. Nat. Immunol. 2005;6:920-927.

    Not in our library10.1038/ni1235

  99. 99.

    Ji Y., Yin D., Fox B., Holmes D.J., Payne D., Rosenberg M. Validation of antibacterial mechanism of action using regulated antisense RNA expression in Staphylococcus aureus. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 2004;231:177-184.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0378-1097(03)00931-5

  100. 100.

    Rooijakkers S.H., van Wamel W.J., Ruyken M., van Kessel K.P., van Strijp J.A. Anti-opsonic properties of staphylokinase. Microbes Infect. 2005;7:476-484.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.micinf.2004.12.014

  101. 101.

    van Wamel W.J., Rooijakkers S.H., Ruyken M., van Kessel K.P., van Strijp J.A. The innate immune modulators staphylococcal complement inhibitor and chemotaxis inhibitory protein of Staphylococcus aureus are located on beta-hemolysin-converting bacteriophages. J. Bacteriol. 2006;188:1310-1315.

    Not in our library10.1128/jb.188.4.1310-1315.2006

  102. 102.

    Coleman D.C., Sullivan D.J., Russell R.J., Arbuthnott J.P., Carey B.F., Pomeroy H.M. Staphylococcus aureus bacteriophages mediating the simultaneous lysogenic conversion of beta-lysin, staphylokinase and enterotoxin A: Molecular mechanism of triple conversion. J. Gen. Microbiol. 1989;135:1679-1697.

    Not in our library10.1099/00221287-135-6-1679

  103. 103.

    Lindsay J.A., Ruzin A., Ross H.F., Kurepina N., Novick R.P. The gene for toxic shock toxin is carried by a family of mobile pathogenicity islands in Staphylococcus aureus. Mol. Microbiol. 1998;29:527-543.

    Not in our library10.1046/j.1365-2958.1998.00947.x

  104. 104.

    Tallent S.M., Langston T.B., Moran R.G., Christie G.E. Transducing particles of Staphylococcus aureus pathogenicity island SaPI1 are comprised of helper phage-encoded proteins. J. Bacteriol. 2007;189:7520-7524.

    Not in our library10.1128/jb.00738-07

  105. 105.

    Novick R.P., Subedi A. The SaPIs: mobile pathogenicity islands of Staphylococcus. Chem. Immunol. Allergy. 2007;93:42-57.

    Not in our library10.1159/000100857

  106. 106.

    Sumby P., Waldor M.K. Transcription of the toxin genes present within the Staphylococcal phage phiSa3ms is intimately linked with the phage's life cycle. J. Bacteriol. 2003;185:6841-6851.

    Not in our library10.1128/jb.185.23.6841-6851.2003

  107. 107.

    Baba T., Takeuchi F., Kuroda M., Yuzawa H., Aoki K., Oguchi A., Nagai Y., Iwama N., Asano K., Naimi T., Kuroda H., Cui L., Yamamoto K., Hiramatsu K. Genome and virulence determinants of high virulence community-acquired MRSA. Lancet. 2002;359:1819-1827.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0140-6736(02)08713-5

  108. 108.

    Baba T., Bae T., Schneewind O., Takeuchi F., Hiramatsu K. Genome sequence of Staphylococcus aureus strain Newman and comparative analysis of staphylococcal genomes: polymorphism and evolution of two major pathogenicity islands. J. Bacteriol. 2008;190:300-310.

    Not in our library10.1128/jb.01000-07

  109. 109.

    Waldron D.E., Lindsay J.A. Sau1: A novel lineage-specific type I restriction-modification system that blocks horizontal gene transfer into Staphylococcus aureus and between S. aureus isolates of different lineages. J. Bacteriol. 2006;188:5578-5585.

    Not in our library10.1128/jb.00418-06

  110. 110.

    Fitzgerald J.R., Reid S.D., Ruotsalainen E., Tripp T.J., Liu M., Cole R., Kuusela P., Schlievert P.M., Järvinen A., Musser J.M. Genome diversification in Staphylococcus aureus: Molecular evolution of a highly variable chromosomal region encoding the staphylococcal exotoxin-like family of proteins. Infect. Immun. 2003;71:2827-2838.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.71.5.2827-2838.2003

  111. 111.

    Bestebroer J., Poppelier M.J., Ulfman L.H., Lenting P.J., Denis C.V., van Kessel K.P., van Strijp J.A., de Haas C.J. Staphylococcal superantigen-like 5 binds PSGL-1 and inhibits P-selectin-mediated neutrophil rolling. Blood. 2007;109:2936-2943.

    Not in our library10.1182/blood-2006-06-015461

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    Fitzgerald J.R., Monday S.R., Foster T.J., Bohach G.A., Hartigan P.J., Meaney W.J., Smith C.J. Characterization of putative pathogenicity island from bovine Staphylococcus aureus encoding multiple superantigens. J. Bacteriol. 2001;183:63-70.

    Not in our library10.1128/jb.183.1.63-70.2001

  113. 113.

    Monday S.R., Bohach G.A. Genes encoding staphylococcal enterotoxins G and I are linked and separated by DNA related to other staphylococcal enterotoxins. J. Nat. Toxins. 2001;10:1-8.

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    Collery M.M., Smyth D.S., Tumilty J.J., Twohig J.M., Smyth C.J. Associations between enterotoxin gene cluster types egc1, egc2 and egc3, agr types, enterotoxin and enterotoxin-like gene profiles, and molecular typing characteristics of human nasal carriage and animal isolates of Staphylococcus aureus. J. Med. Microbiol. 2009;58:13-25.

    Not in our library10.1099/jmm.0.005215-0

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    Holden M.T., Feil E.J., Lindsay J.A., Peacock S.J., Day N.P., Enright M.C., Foster T.J., Moore C.E., Hurst L., Atkin R., Barron A., Bason N., Bentley S.D., Chillingworth C., Chillingworth T., Churcher C., Clark L., Corton C., Cronin A., Doggett J., Dowd L., Feltwell T., Hance Z., Harris B., Hauser H., Holroyd S., Jagels K., James K.D., Lennard N., Line A., Mayes R., Moule S., Mungall K., Ormond D., Quail M.A., Rabbinowitsch E., Rutherford K., Sanders M., Sharp S., Simmonds M., Stevens K., Whitehead S., Barrell B.G., Spratt B.G., Parkhill J. Complete genomes of two clinical Staphylococcus aureus strains: Evidence for the rapid evolution of virulence and drug resistance. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2004;101:9786-9791.

    Not in our library10.1073/pnas.0402521101

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    Collery M.M., Smyth C.J. Rapid differentiation of Staphylococcus aureus isolates harbouring egc loci with pseudogenes psient1 and psient2 and the selu or seluv gene using PCR-RFLP. J. Med. Microbiol. 2007;56:208-216.

    Not in our library10.1099/jmm.0.46948-0

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    Omoe K., Hu D.L., Takahashi-Omoe H., Nakane A., Shinagawa K. Comprehensive analysis of classical and newly described staphylococcal superantigenic toxin genes in Staphylococcus aureus isolates. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 2005;246:191-198.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.femsle.2005.04.007

  118. 118.

    Noto M.J., Archer G.L. A subset of Staphylococcus aureus strains harboring staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec) type IV is deficient in CcrAB-mediated SCCmec excision. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2006;50:2782-2788.

    Not in our library10.1128/aac.00032-06

  119. 119.

    Bergdoll M.S. Monkey feeding test for staphylococcal enterotoxin. Meth. Enzymol. 1988;165:324-333.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0076-6879(88)65048-8

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    Holmberg S.D., Blake P.A. Staphylococcal food poisoning in the United States. New facts and old misconceptions. JAMA. 1984;251:487-489.

    Not in our library

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    Wieneke A.A., Roberts D., Gilbert R.J. Staphylococcal food poisoning in the United Kingdom, 1969–90. Epidemiol. Infect. 1993;110:519-531.

    Not in our library10.1017/s0950268800050949

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    Kérouanton A., Hennekinne J.A., Letertre C., Petit L., Chesneau O., Brisabois A., De Buyser M.L. Characterization of Staphylococcus aureus strains associated with food poisoning outbreaks in France. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2007;115:369-375.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2006.10.050

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    Schmid D., Fretz R., Winter P., Mann M., Höger G., Stöger A., Ruppitsch W., Ladstätter J., Mayer N., de Martin A., Allerberger F. Outbreak of staphylococcal food intoxication after consumption of pasteurized milk products, June 2007, Austria. Wien. Klin. Wochenschr. 2009;121:125-131.

    Not in our library10.1007/s00508-008-1132-0

  124. 124.

    Casman E.P. Staphylococal enterotoxin. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1965;128:124-131.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1749-6632.1965.tb11634.x

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    Veras J.F., do Carmo L.S., Tong L.C., Shupp J.W., Cummings C., Dos Santos D.A., Cerqueira M.M., Cantini A., Nicoli J.R., Jett M. A study of the enterotoxigenicity of coagulase-negative and coagulase-positive staphylococcal isolates from food poisoning outbreaks in Minas Gerais, Brazil. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 2008;12:410-415.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ijid.2007.09.018

  126. 126.

    Cha J.O., Lee J.K., Jung Y.H., Yoo J.I., Park Y.K., Kim B.S., Lee Y.S. Molecular analysis of Staphylococcus aureus isolates associated with staphylococcal food poisoning in South Korea. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2006;101:864-871.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1365-2672.2006.02957.x

  127. 127.

    Shimizu A., Fujita M., Igarashi H., Takagi M., Nagase N., Sasaki A., Kawano J. Characterization of Staphylococcus aureus coagulase type VII isolates from staphylococcal food poisoning outbreaks (1980–1995) in Tokyo, Japan, by pulsed field gel electrophoresis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2000;38:3746-3749.

    Not in our library10.1128/jcm.38.10.3746-3749.2000

  128. 128.

    Asao T., Kumeda Y., Kawai T., Shibata T., Oda H., Haruki K., Nakazawa H., Kozaki S. An extensive outbreak of staphylococcal food poisoning due to low-fat milk in Japan: estimation of enterotoxin A in the incriminated milk and powdered skim milk. Epidemiol. Infect. 2003;130:33-40.

    Not in our library10.1017/s0950268802007951

  129. 129.

    Kitamoto M., Kito K., Niimi Y., Shoda S., Takamura A., Hiramatsu T., Akashi T., Yokoi Y., Hirano H., Hosokawa M., Yamamoto A., Agata N., Hamajima N. Food poisoning by Staphylococcus aureus at a university festival. Jpn. J. Infect. Dis. 2009;62:242-243.

    Not in our library

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    An Outbreak of Community-Acquired Foodborne Illness Caused by Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus · 2002
    No notice
  131. 131.

    McLauchlin J., Narayanan G.L., Mithani V., O’Neil G. The detection of enterotoxins and toxic schock síndrome toxin genes in Staphylococcus aureus by polymerase chain reaction. J. Food Prot. 2000;63:479-488.

    Not in our library10.4315/0362-028x-63.4.479

  132. 132.

    Morris C.A., Conway H.D., Everall P.H. Food poisoning due to staphylococcal enterotoxin E. Lancet. 1972;2:1375-1376.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0140-6736(72)92830-9

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    Ostyn A., De Buyser M.L., Guillier F., Groult J., Felix B., Salah S., Delmas G., Hennekinne J.A. First evidence of a food poisoning outbreak due to staphylococcal enterotoxin type E, France, 2009. Euro. Surveill. 2010;15:pii. 19528.

    Not in our library

  134. 134.

    Su Y.C., Wong A.C. Detection of staphylococcal enterotoxin H by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. J. Food Prot. 1996;59:327-330.

    Not in our library10.4315/0362-028x-59.3.327

  135. 135.

    Omoe K., Ishikawa M., Shimoda Y., Hu D.L., Ueda S., Shinagawa K. Detection of seg, seh, and sei genes in Staphylococcus aureus isolates and determination of the enterotoxin productivities of S. aureus isolates harboring seg, seh, or sei genes. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2002;40:857-862.

    Not in our library10.1128/jcm.40.3.857-862.2002

  136. 136.

    Ikeda T., Tamate N., Yamaguchi K., Makino S. Mass outbreak of food poisoning disease caused by small amounts of staphylococcal enterotoxins A and H. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2005;71:2793-2795.

    Not in our library10.1128/aem.71.5.2793-2795.2005

  137. 137.

    Jørgensen H.J., Mathisen T., Løvseth A., Omoe K., Qvale K.S., Loncarevic S. An outbreak of staphylococcal food poisoning caused by enterotoxin H in mashed potato made with raw milk. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 2005;252:267-272.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.femsle.2005.09.005

  138. 138.

    Pereira M.L., do Carmo L.S., dos Santos E.J., Pereira J.L., Bergdoll M.S. Enterotoxin H in staphylococcal food poisoning. J. Food Prot. 1996;59:559-561.

    Not in our library10.4315/0362-028x-59.5.559

  139. 139.

    Abe J., Ito Y., Onimaru M., Kohsaka T., Takeda T. Characterization and distribution of a new enterotoxin-related superantigen produced by Staphylococcus aureus. Microbiol. Immunol. 2000;44:79-88.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1348-0421.2000.tb01250.x

  140. 140.

    Bania J., Dabrowska A., Bystron J., Korzekwa K., Chrzanowska J., Molenda J. Distribution of newly described enterotoxin-like genes in Staphylococcus aureus from food. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2006;108:36-41.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2005.10.013

  141. 141.

    Blaiotta G., Ercolini D., Pennacchia C., Fusco V., Casaburi A., Pepe O., Villani F. PCR detection of staphylococcal enterotoxin genes in Staphylococcus spp. strains isolated from meat and dairy products. Evidence for new variants of seG and seI in S. aureus AB-8802. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2004;97:719-730.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1365-2672.2004.02349.x

  142. 142.

    Jørgensen H.J., Mørk T., Caugant D.A., Kearns A., Rørvik L.M. Genetic variation among Staphylococcus aureus strains from Norwegian bulk milk. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2005;71:8352-8361.

    Not in our library10.1128/aem.71.12.8352-8361.2005

  143. 143.

    Martin M.C., Fueyo J.M., González-Hevia M.A., Mendoza M.C. Genetic procedures for identification of enterotoxigenic strains of Staphylococcus aureus from three food poisoning outbreaks. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2004;94:279-286.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2004.01.011

  144. 144.

    Rosec J.P., Gigaud O. Staphylococcal enterotoxin genes of classical and new types detected by PCR in France. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2002;77:61-70.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0168-1605(02)00044-2

  145. 145.

    Hwang S.Y., Kim S.H., Jang E.J., Kwon N.H., Park Y.K., Koo H.C., Jung W.K., Kim J.M., Park Y.H. Novel multiplex PCR for the detection of the Staphylococcus aureus superantigen and its application to raw meat isolates in Korea. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2007;117:99-105.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.02.013

  146. 146.

    Naik S., Smith F., Ho J., Croft N.M., Domizio P., Price E., Sanderson I.R., Meadows N.J. Staphylococcal enterotoxins G and I, a cause of severe but reversible neonatal enteropathy. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2008;6:251-254.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.cgh.2007.09.004

  147. 147.

    Argudín M.A., Mendoza M.C., Méndez F.J., Martín M.C., Guerra B., Rodicio M.R. Clonal complexes and diversity of exotoxin gene profiles in methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus isolates from patients in a Spanish hospital. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2009;47:2097-2105.

    Not in our library10.1128/jcm.01486-08

  148. 148.

    Fueyo J.M., Mendoza M.C., Alvarez M.A., Martín M.C. Relationships between toxin gene content and genetic background in nasal carried isolates of Staphylococcus aureus from Asturias, Spain. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 2005;243:447-454.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.femsle.2005.01.006

  149. 149.

    Fueyo J.M., Mendoza M.C., Rodicio M.R., Muñiz J., Alvarez M.A., Martín M.C. Cytotoxin and pyrogenic toxin superantigen gene profiles of Staphylococcus aureus associated with subclinical mastitis in dairy cows and relationships with macrorestriction genomic profiles. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2005;43:1278-1284.

    Not in our library10.1128/jcm.43.3.1278-1284.2005

  150. 150.

    Dauwalder O., Thomas D., Ferry T., Debard A.L., Badiou C., Vandenesch F., Etienne J., Lina G., Monneret G. Comparative inflammatory properties of staphylococcal superantigenic enterotoxins SEA and SEG: implications for septic shock. J. Leukoc. Biol. 2006;80:753-758.

    Not in our library10.1189/jlb.0306232

  151. 151.

    Dauwalder O., Pachot A., Cazalis M.A., Paye M., Faudot C., Badiou C., Mougin B., Vandenesch F., Etienne J., Lina G., Monneret G. Early kinetics of the transcriptional response of human leukocytes to staphylococcal superantigenic enterotoxins A and G. Microb. Pathog. 2009;47:171-176.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.micpath.2009.07.001

  152. 152.

    Mempel M., Lina G., Hojka M., Schnopp C., Seidl H.P., Schäfer T., Ring J., Vandenesch F., Abeck D. High prevalence of superantigens associated with the egc locus in Staphylococcus aureus isolates from patients with atopic eczema. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 2003;22:306-309.

    Not in our library10.1007/s10096-003-0928-0

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