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Pathogenesis of Y. enterocolitica and Y. pseudotuberculosis in Human Yersiniosis

Cristi L. Galindo, Jason A. Rosenzweig, Michelle L. Kirtley and 1 more

Journal of Pathogens · 2011 · Review

doi:10.4061/2011/182051

Abstract

Yersiniosis is a food-borne illness that has become more prevalent in recent years due to human transmission via the fecal-oral route and prevalence in farm animals. Yersiniosis is primarily caused by Yersinia enterocolitica and less frequently by Yersinia pseudotuberculosis . Infection is usually characterized by a self-limiting acute infection beginning in the intestine and spreading to the mesenteric lymph nodes. However, more serious infections and chronic conditions can also occur, particularly in immunocompromised individuals. Y. enterocolitica and Y. pseudotuberculosis are both heterogeneous organisms that vary considerably in their degrees of pathogenicity, although some generalizations can be ascribed to pathogenic variants. Adhesion molecules and a type III secretion system are critical for the establishment and progression of infection. Additionally, host innate and adaptive immune responses are both required for yersiniae clearance. Despite the ubiquity of enteric Yersinia species and their association as important causes of food poisoning world-wide, few national enteric pathogen surveillance programs include the yersiniae as notifiable pathogens. Moreover, no standard exists whereby identification and reporting systems can be effectively compared and global trends developed. This review discusses yersinial virulence factors, mechanisms of infection, and host responses in addition to the current state of surveillance, detection, and prevention of yersiniosis.

Full text

From PubMed Central, U.S. National Library of Medicine, as current on Oct 27, 2026. Paragraph numbers are ours, so an answer can point at one.

1. Introduction

Yersiniosis is typically a self-limiting, gastrointestinal disease of global concern. However, despite the known association of the causative agents (Y. enterocolitica, YE, and very rarely Y. pseudotuberculosis, YPT) with both gastroenteritis and extraintestinal infections, it remains a poorly understood disease. Sporadic cases are still reported in which food is not suspected as the source of infection, and isolation from contaminated food sources is often problematic. Because yersiniosis is considered relatively uncommon and YE and YPT are ubiquitous, food and water supplies are not regularly monitored for these bacterial pathogens. However, the ability of the yersiniae to persist in a nonculturable but viable state in natural samples and to grow and thrive at refrigeration temperatures (~4°C) suggests that their contribution to disease might be underappreciated.

1.1. YE Infections

The major causative agent of yersiniosis is the gram-negative, zoonotic bacterial pathogen, YE, which is typically transmitted via the fecal-oral route. The closely related YPT can also cause yersiniosis, but human YPT infections are less frequent than those caused by YE. Yersiniosis has been observed on all continents but is most common in European countries. Some of the challenges associated with linking yersiniosis to its source of contamination are attributable to the heterogeneity of yersiniae populations within a plethora of environments and reservoirs including: soil, water, and a variety of animals. Yersiniosis is an important infection in European brown hares and has additionally been detected in Canadian beavers, snowshoe hares, and muskrats. Additionally, YE and YPT have been isolated form bats in Germany. More relevant to humans is the prevalence of the yersiniae in animal food sources, particularly pigs and pork products, and more recently in domestic farm dogs in China. Further complicating the picture of disease transmission, a recent study found that wild rodents on a European pig farm tested positive for YE, suggesting that rodents might serve as interspecies carriers between reservoirs. YE has also been isolated from flies found in farm piggeries and kitchens, suggesting that arthropod vectors/insects might play a role in the transmission of the enteric yersiniae between animals and humans. Flies might also facilitate the spread of nosocomial infections which is of particular concern because there is at least one report of flies in Libyan hospitals carrying antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria belonging to the Enterobacteriaceae family. The major source of yersiniosis is swine, but recent isolates from contaminated chicken, milk, tofu, and water have also been reported.

In healthy, immunocompetent individuals, yersiniosis symptoms range from mild, self-limiting diarrhea to mesenteric lymphadenitis. However, in immunocompromised individuals chronic conditions such as reactive arthritis have also been observed. YE infection is generally established via digestion of contaminated food or water followed by bacterial adherence to small intestinal epithelial cells and eventual crossing of the intestinal barrier via M cells. Subsequently, YE bacilli replicate in Peyer's patches and can sometimes spread to more distant lymphoid tissues, such as the mesenteric lymph nodes. Dissemination from the distal ileum to the spleen and liver is relatively common, followed by extracellular replication and formation of monoclonal microabscesses. The most common infection is acute gastroenteritis, mainly observed in children and infants on account of being somewhat immunocompromised due to an immature immune system. However, a host of other infections and complications can also occur in older children and adults, including pseudoappendicular syndrome, mycotic aneurysms, and, more rarely, sepsis as a secondary complication of yersiniosis or from blood transfusions. Several chronic conditions have also been described including: reactive arthritis, erythema nodosum, uveitis, glomerulonephritis, and myocarditis. While enteropathogenic yersiniosis is typically self-limiting in healthy individuals, the mortality rate can reach as high as 50% in immunocompromised persons, as a result of systemic bacterial dissemination.

1.2. YPT Infections

YPT causes zoonotic infections in a variety of hosts, including both wild and domestic animals and birds. Human YPT infections, though less common than those caused by YE, are most often acquired from contaminated food or water. Clinically, YPT infections typically present as abscess-forming mesenteric lymphadenitis and diarrhea but can also lead to secondary complications, such as perforation, subacute obstruction syndrome, intussusceptions, and acute renal failure in rare cases. Additionally, patients with severe gastrointestinal bleeding in cases of YPT colitis have also been reported. Similar to YE, the most common features of YPT infections in humans are ileocolitis and mesenteric lymphadenitis, the latter of which can affect appendix tissue and be mistaken for appendicitis. YPT infections can be acute or chronic, with reticulogranulocytic infiltration, enlarged follicles, and necrosis with abscess formation in mesenteric lymph nodes. Infection is usually self-limiting, but rare cases of sepsis can lead to a very high mortality rate (>75%). In addition to appendicitis, YPT infections have been confused with tumoral lesions, terminal ileitis, and Crohn's disease. YPT has also been implicated in reactive arthritis, erythema nodosum, and Kwasaki autoimmune syndrome.

1.3. YE Epidemiology

Surveillance of human YPT infections is not routinely performed, and there are thus no complete databases from which information can be used to gauge trends in human YPT infections. However, there are several national surveillance networks that include yersiniosis in weekly, monthly, and yearly reports of human enteric disease cases/isolations, particularly those collected by member states of the European Union, the United States, and New Zealand. Potential sources of epidemiological data include clinical reports, laboratory isolations, sentinel site studies, reported cases, and rates calculated as cases per 100,000 persons in the affected population surveillance area per annum. Differences in reporting methods, isolation methods, and availability of strain information greatly complicate comparisons among countries and sometimes even among different regions/states/territories within an individual country. Furthermore, yersiniosis is infrequently monitored in developing countries, where enteric diseases are a major cause of infant and child mortality. For instance, the World Health Organization initiated a plan to address this issue in Africa in 1998 by working with member states and technical partners to implement the integrated disease surveillance and response (IDSR) program, but yersiniosis is not included as a primary surveillance target. Similarly, the Medical Sciences Center for Disease Control (http://www.moh.gov.cn), a division of China's Ministry of Health, reports communicable disease incidences on a weekly basis, but the plague is the only yersiniae-associated disease included in their surveillance efforts.

Despite the lack of surveillance in many countries, including Africa, Asia, the Middle East, Pacific Islands, Latin America, the Caribbean, and others, there are several national agencies in North America and Europe that provide yearly reports which include sporadic yersiniosis cases, outbreaks, and incidence rates in both humans and animals. As shown in Figure 1, there was a broad range of case reports for North America (including the US and Canada), Oceania (including Australia and New Zealand), and several European countries. For instance, Ireland reported between 3 and 14 isolations of YE/YPT from humans between the years of 2000 and 2009, while Germany reported between 3,906 and 7,186 confirmed cases of human yersiniosis during this same time period (Figure 1). Although, incidences have declined over the last 10 years (Figure 2), German yersiniosis cases account for more than half of all reported European yersiniosis events and ~90% of those within Western European nations that regularly surveyed their populations for YE-associated infections during the aforementioned ten-year-time frame (Figure 1). The reasons for the dramatically higher yersiniosis incidence rate in Germany compared to all other countries with active YE/YPT surveillance programs is unclear, but potential factors include variability in yersiniae isolation procedures and reporting systems, differences in clinical diagnostic frequency, degree of underreporting, prevalence of YE and YPT in animal reservoirs, differences in food processing, and variability in the consumption of meat products. There is some evidence to support the idea that higher meat consumption, particularly pork in Germany compared to other European nations might correlate with Germany's higher incidence of yersiniosis.

1.4. YE Genomics

YE is a heterogeneous group of organisms characterized by six biotypes and 60 serotypes. Biotypes can be distinguished based on level of pathogenicity, only one of which is nonpathogenic (Biotype 1A). “Old World” YE includes Biotypes 2–5, which are weakly pathogenic. Most virulent is the “New World” Biotype 1B, which is highly pathogenic to humans and lethal in a mouse model of infection. Of the sixty serotypes of YE, only eleven have been associated with disease in humans, and the majority can be traced to only three commonly virulent serotypes: O:3, O:8, and O:9. These three serotypes are generally considered the causative agents of yersiniosis and vary based on geography. For instance, strain 1B/O:8 has been the predominant version of pathogenic YE in the United States; in contrast, strain 3/O:9 is the most common cause of yersiniosis in China and in Europe.

Isolates from these two pathogenic strains were sequenced and recently compared to identify common and unique virulence regions. The results of this analysis indicated that the two strains share considerable genetic conservation/similarity, including most of the known YE virulence determinants. However, several 1B/O:8 key virulence regions were absent in the 3/O:9 strain including high pathogenicity island (HPI), Yersinia type II secretion 1 (yts1), and the Yersinia Type III secretion apparatus (ysa). Likewise, the 3/O:9 strain possessed pathogenicity regions absent in the highly pathogenic 1B/O:8 strain. Strain 3/O:9-specific regions included a novel chromosomally encoded Type III secretion system (T3SS), ATP binding cassette transporter system, toxin-related gene clusters, and a flagellar gene cluster. Sequencing additional YE strains, such as 4/O:3 that has recently emerged as an important cause of yersiniosis in the United States, will likely contribute to a better understanding of the relationship between strain-specific virulence factors and variations in clinical sequelae.

1.5. YPT Genomics

YPT can be classified into 14 distinct biotypes, five of which are almost exclusively pathogenic (O1–O5). The remaining nine biotypes (O6–O14) have been isolated from animals and the environment but never from human clinical samples. Both pathogenic and nonpathogenic YPT can be further subdivided into 21 serotypes based on the distribution of about 30 different O factors (O-specific polysaccharide of lipopolysaccharide [LPS]) within the species. These serotypes vary geographically and in degree of pathogenicity, generally correlating with the size and presence of the chromosomal pathogenicity island, HPI. Only Biotype O1 strains contain a complete, intact HPI. Biotype O3 contains a truncated version, and the pathogenicity island is entirely absent from all other YPT strains that have thus far been examined. The pathogenicity of YPT depends on the presence of the T3SS-encoding virulence plasmid pYV, YPMa, and HPI (described in detail in the next section), and clinical features are closely correlated with the various combinations of these three virulence factors. For instance, pYV is absent in one-fourth of the known virulent serotypes, which instead express the YPMa superantigen variant and/or HPI proteins. The heterogeneous distribution of these factors accounts for the differences in clinical manifestations of infections in the Far East, Europe, and Western countries.

1.6. YE and YPT Virulence Factors

The genomes of YE, YPT, and YP are 97% identical, but the three bacteria cause vastly different diseases in humans, despite having a shared tropism for lymph nodes. Their distributions of shared and unique virulence factors play a critical role in the different routes of infection, types of infections, and severity of disease in humans. Both chromosomal and plasmid-derived virulence factors play a role in yersiniae pathogenesis and in the establishment and progression of yersiniosis. YE pathogenicity depends on the presence of the 70-kb plasmid associated with Yersinia virulence, pYV. The pYV plasmid differentiates pathogenic from non-pathogenic strains, because it is essential for virulence. The highly pathogenic Y. enterocolitica biotype 1B also harbors the chromosomal high-pathogenicity island (HPI), as do almost all European strains of Y. pseudotuberculosis serotype O1. HPI encodes proteins that are involved in the biosynthesis, regulation, and transport of the siderophore yersiniabactin and has thus been referred to as an “iron capture island”. There are five main genes within this island (psn, irp1, irp2, ybtP, and ybtQ) that are involved in the yersiniabactin system. This system is positively regulated by YtbA, which is, itself, negatively regulated by the iron-responsive regulator Fur. The psn and irp2 genes are important for the high-pathogenicity phenotype of YPT.

Almost all Far Eastern strains of YPT additionally produce one of three variants of a chromosomally encoded novel superantigenic toxin YPM (YPT-derived mitogen) encoded by the ypm gene. The original YPM (renamed YPMa) is encoded by ypmA and plays a more important role in systemic infections than in gastroenteritis. The other two variants, YPMb and YPMc, are encoded by the ypmB and ypmC genes, respectively.

The small conserved RNA chaperone protein, Hfq is required for full virulence of a variety of pathogenic bacteria, including both YE and YPT. Hfq is required for expression of the heat-stable enterotoxin Yst in YE. In YPT, Hfq plays a role in the regulation of motility, intracellular survival, and production of T3SS effectors.

The YPT chromosomally encoded PhoP/Q system regulates survival and growth in macrophages and covalent modifications of LPS that reduce its stimulatory capacity, thereby empowering bacteria to avoid, minimize, or delay macrophage activation. In a mouse model of intestinal infection, mutants devoid of PhoP were 100-fold attenuated in virulence due to a reduced capacity to survive and replicate intracellularly within macrophages. The global PhoPQ regulon also senses the reduction in Mg2+ and possibly Mn2+ levels that characterizes the intracellular environment of host cells. MntH, a putative Yersinia Mn2+ transporter, was recently proposed to promote survival of the bacteria within phagocytic vacuoles by protecting them from reactive oxygen species.

1.7. Establishment of Yersiniosis Infection

In many pathogens, virulence factors are closely coupled to temperature, and this temperature regulation is particularly important for the establishment of infection. At environmental temperatures (less than 28°C) and under acidic conditions at 37°C, the enteric yersiniae optimally express the invasin protein, which is encoded by the chromosomal inv locus. Upon ingestion, invasin binds to B1 integrins on host cells and facilitates penetration of the epithelial layer (Figure 3). The gradual increase in temperature within the host induces the expression of virulence factors necessary to establish a stronghold within the lymph tissues and evade immune system detection. Expression of the chromosomal ail (attachment invasion) locus, for instance, is induced at 37°C, and the resulting Ail/OmpX protein further enhances epithelial cell invasion. Establishment of infection also requires translocation of toxic effectors via a T3SS as well as “other transporter systems”. Regulation of adherence and invasion is mediated via the regulator of virulence A (RovA), which positively regulates inv expression, Yersinia-modulating protein (YmoA), and histone-like nucleoid structuring protein (H-NS).

Yersinia adhesion A protein (YadA) also mediates mucus and epithelial cell attachment and, in concert with invasin, promotes host cell invasion (Figure 3). YadA is a multifunctional, surface-exposed virulence factor encoded on the pYV virulence plasmid that confers the ability to adhere to extracellular matrix proteins. Induction of YadA expression is coordinated with the upregulation of Yops (Yersinia outer membrane proteins). The contribution of YadA to virulence is greater for YE than for YPT, playing a significant role in the positive regulation of both adherence to and invasion of host cells. YadA plays only a minor role in YPT, conferring merely an adhesive phenotype. Similar to invasin, YadA initiates internalization by binding to extracellular fibronectin that is bound to a 5b1 integrin. YadA from YPT and YE binds fibronectin, collagen I, II, and IV, and laminin, albeit with different affinities thus promoting variable virulence properties. YadA elicits an inflammatory response in epithelial cells by inducing mitogen-activated protein kinase-(MAPK-) dependent interleukin (IL)-8 production and by contributing to the resulting intestinal inflammatory cascade. Interaction of YadA with collagen has been proposed to contribute to chronic yersiniosis infections, such as the development of reactive arthritis which has been demonstrated in a rat model.

In addition to inhibition and invasion of host cells, both Ail and YadA play significant roles in complement resistance and immune evasion. Ail and YadA inhibit the alternative complement pathway by binding regulator factor H and usurping its natural function to prevent lysis of host cells. Ail and YadA similarly subvert the classical complement and lectin pathways by binding to C4b-binding protein, thereby promoting the degradation of the C4b complement factor and preventing the formation of the C3 convertase that would otherwise lead to lysis of the bacterial cells.

Other YPT virulence factors include the putative DNA adenine methyltransferase, YamA, which is required for full virulence, and several proteins that aid in bacterial survival under acidic conditions. An aspartate-dependent acid survival system was recently described for YPT, which plays a role in bacterial survival and thus facilitates establishment of infection. A drop in pH induces the expression of the YPT aspertase (aspA) gene; the encoded gene product, AspA, subsequently produces ammonia, allowing the ingested organisms to survive the acidic gastrointestinal environment. Other bacterial factors that promote survival under acidic conditions include urease, TatC, PhoP, OmpR, and PmrA. Acidic pH also induces a downregulation of the transcriptional regulator, Cra (for catabolite repressor/activator), which increases bacterial acid survival. Presumably Cra mediates this action via transcriptional regulation, but its mechanism of action remains unknown.

1.8. T3SS and Yop Effectors

The T3SS, which is encoded on the pYV virulence plasmid and is common to all three pathogenic yersiniae, plays a substantial role in both the establishment and outcome of infection. The T3SS injectisome spans both the inner and outer bacterial membranes, and virulent effector proteins, termed Yersinia outer proteins (Yops), are translocated through a host-cell docked Yersinia secretion protein F (YscF) needle, directly into the targeted host cells. The YopB and YopD proteins form a pore in the host cell plasma membrane, allowing for the docking of the YscF needle and eventual translocation of the effectors (Figure 3). Proper assembly of a stable injectisome complex also requires the YscE and YscG cytosolic chaperone proteins. There are six effector Yop proteins (YopE, YopH, YopP/J, YopO/YpkA, and YopM) that mediate immune evasion by interfering with host signal transduction pathways, disruption of the host actin cytoskeleton, and by inducing host-cell apoptosis (Figure 3).

Delivery of Yops requires close contact between the bacterial and host cells and is mediated by YadA and invasin through their binding to β1-integrins (Figure 3), which when stimulated cause the activation of Src kinases and RhoA that facilitate Yop translocation via modulation of actin polymerization. In the absence of Yops, activation of β1-integrins would instead lead to actin rearrangements that promote bacterial internalization. Each Yop has a designated chaperone called a Syc protein (for specific Yop chaperone) (e.g., SycE for YopE), required for Yop secretion. The T3SS injectisome is triggered by host-cell contact, as well as in vitro by temperature (37°C) and low calcium conditions (which serve to emulate intracellular conditions of the host cells). Yop effectors allow evasion of immune responses by blocking host phagocytic function, which is vital for bacterial replication and intracellular survival. The Yersinia T3SS pore itself was recently suggested to trigger processing of IL-1β and IL-18 in macrophages and subsequent formation of an inflammasome, a cytosolic innate immune complex that triggers inflammation and pyroptosis in response to pore formation.

Host cell death is mediated by the YopP/J effector, a serine-threonine acetyltransferase that induces apoptosis of phagocytes by modulating the actions of LPS (Figure 3). Upon binding to the toll-like receptor (TLR)-4, LPS induces the activation of proapoptotic host factors via TRIL (Toll/IL-1 receptor domain-containing adapter inducing IFN-β), while simultaneously downregulating proinflammatory and cell survival genes via inactivation of MAPK and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) transcription factor (Figure 3). YopP/J specifically inhibits the inflammatory and cell survival actions of LPS, thus tipping the scale towards host cell apoptosis. YopP/J-mediated inhibition of host cell proinflammatory responses involves inhibition of IKKβ activation, and thus NF-κB activity (Figure 3), which results in the reduction of TNF-α release by macrophages, prevention of IL-8 secretion by epithelial cells, and reduction in the presentation of ICAM-1 and E-selectin adhesion factors on the surface of epithelial cells. More recently, it was shown that YopP/J also directly activates caspases (Figure 3) independently of upstream death receptors.

Once injected into the host-cell cytoplasm, YopE, -H, -P, and -T cooperatively disrupt the cytoskeleton of epithelial cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells thereby decreasing their capacity to engulf the invading bacteria. YopP/J can also facilitate evasion of adaptive immune responses by inhibiting the ability of dendritic cells to present antigens to CD8+ T cells, either directly or possibly by decreasing the population of dendritic cells via induction of apoptosis. A similar strategy is employed by YPT using the GTPase activating protein (GAP), YopE, to circumvent phagocytosis by dendritic cells. In addition to the Yersinia injectisome and effector proteins, at least three adaptor proteins YopB, YopD, and VirF/LcrV (low calcium response V antigen) are required for T3SS activity. VirF/LcrV (also called V antigen) is a multiple adaptational response (MAR) family member that regulates the T3SS at the level of transcription and, when secreted into the extracellular host environment, contributes to virulence by downregulating inflammation.

YopE, YopT, and YopO/YpkA counteract host-cell phagocytosis by acting on monomeric Rho GTPases responsible for regulation of cytoskeleton dynamics. YopE exhibits GAP activity, thereby inducing GTP hydrolysis and, thus, inactivation of RhoA, Rac1, and Cdc42 (Figure 3). YopT, on the other hand, acts as a cysteine protease that inactivates Rho, Rac, and Cdc42 via cleavage. YopO/YpkA is a serine-threonine kinase with sequence and structural similarity to RhoA-binding kinases that undergoes autophosphorylation upon binding to actin. YopO can also bind directly to RhoA and Rac-1 with currently unknown consequences.

The YopH effector was also recently shown to inhibit host inflammatory responses via the downregulation of chemokine monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1). YopH of YPT inhibits activation of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase pathway, resulting in the prevention of antigen-mediated activation of lymphocytes. YopH, a protein tyrosine phosphatase, disrupts T-cell and B-cell activation by interfering with phosphorylation signaling events resulting in decreased expression of the costimulatory molecules B7.2 and CD69, as well as the leukocyte mitogen, IL-2. Very little is known about YopM, but its deletion results in a dramatic decrease in virulence. YopM appears to be injected into host cells, along with other T3SS effector proteins, but there is also evidence that YopM can bind to the extracellular acute phase protein α1-antitrypsin. More recently, YopM was shown to form a complex with ribosomal S6 kinase (RSK) and protease-activated kinase (PKN) (Figure 3), which results in sustained activation of RSK and possibly contributes to Yersinia pathogenicity.

1.9. Chromosomal T3SSs

In addition to the pYV-encoded T3SS, there are two additional chromosomally encoded T3SSs in YE: a flagellar T3SS and the Ysa T3SS. The Ysa T3SS is optimally expressed under high salt concentrations, 26°C, and at stationary growth phase. Salt responsiveness is mediated by the sycByspBCDA operon, which is regulated by YsaE and the SycB chaperone. The Ysa T3SS plays a role in virulence and is important for colonization of the small intestine despite its optimal expression at non mammalian temperatures (26°C). There are 15 known Ysa effector proteins (Ysps), which are thought to function similarly to Yop effectors as modulators of host immune responses. Interestingly, the flagellar T3SS, which functions in the biogenesis of flagella, secretes Fop effectors that also play a role in the pathogenesis of YE. YplA (Yersinia phospholipase A), for instance, is a Fop required for colonization of Peyer's Patches and mesenteric lymph nodes that contributes to inflammatory responses within these tissues.

1.10. Type VI and IV Secretion System

T3SSs are not the sole secretion systems identified in the yersiniae that promote bacterial virulence. In fact, a type VI secretion system (T6SS) was recently identified in YPT, which harbors four copies, one of which was recently shown to be regulated by temperature, growth phase, and the N-acyl homeserine lactone-AHL-dependent quorum sensing system. YPT also harbors a type IV pilus gene cluster that contributes to pathogenicity.

1.11. Host Responses to YE and YPT Infection

Yersinia infections are biphasic and are initiated by a “quiet” 36–48 hour period of bacterial replication without a measurable host response. This initial “quiet” phase is followed by an influx of activated phagocytes into infected tissues and lymph nodes, which induces an acute inflammatory response characterized by cytokine production and tissue necrosis. The T3SS Yop effectors are likely responsible for the initial inhibition of phagocytic functions, but the mechanisms behind such a sudden, bipolar “off-on” inflammatory response are presently not fully understood. The T3SS is absolutely required for effective colonization of systemic organs, and T3SS inactivation leads to rapid clearance of the bacteria by the host. As a result, yersiniae lacking a functional T3SS are avirulent and can function as live attenuated vaccine strains in mice.

Recent evidence suggests that macrophages can compensate for YopE/YopH-mediated inhibition of the endosomal MHC class II antigen presentation pathway by an autophagy-dependent mechanism. Thus, autophagy might serve as an alternative counter-pathway by which the host might mount an MHC class II-restricted CD4+ T-cell response against Yersinia T3SS-mediated translocation of Yop virulence effectors. However, whereas Deuretzbacher et al. demonstrated autophagy-mediated degradation of macrophage internalized YE, YPT was shown to usurp the autophagosome pathway for continued replication within macrophages at the intestinal site of infection.

Murine studies have demonstrated that CD4+ and CD8+ T cells are required for control of YE infection, as are IFN-γ-mediated Th1 immune responses, including macrophage production of TNF, IL-12, and IL-18. Inhibition of T-cell proliferation and dendritic cell functions by Yops are primary mechanisms by which the yersiniae evade both innate and adaptive immune responses. Interestingly, the yersiniae induce both apoptosis of naïve macrophages and inflammatory cell death (pyroptosis) of activated macrophages, which is consistent with its biphasic infection process. Increased inflammation associated with the redirected host cell death could initially benefit the yersiniae but later could contribute to a generalized immune response and eventual clearance of bacteria.

1.12. Detection and Prevention of Food-Borne Yersiniosis

YE and YPT clinical infections most often occur following ingestion of the bacteria in contaminated food or water. The two aforementioned yersiniae have been isolated from meat, fresh produce, and milk, but their presence is frequently unapparent due to detection difficulties. Various YE strains are most often distinguished by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), but there is currently no standardized test or database for consistent identification. Moreover, enteropathogenic Yersinia species are not included in the protocols that are used by laboratories in PulseNet which, in cooperation with the Association of Public Health Laboratories (APHL), coordinates with public health laboratories to subtype bacterial foodborne pathogens. The heterogeneity of both YE and YPT makes definitive detection difficult, and PFGE produces multiple bands that are not especially distinctive based on serotype. Some reports have suggested that current detection methods can produce false-negatives or false-positives based on variability in the presence of Yersinia virulence factors, and their variable correlation with pathogenicity. Suggestions for improving detection include the use of more than one restriction nuclease in PFGE analyses and application of a recently developed multilocus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis (MLVA) for YE.

Detection is an especially important concern, because both YE and YPT can readily proliferate at refrigeration temperatures (4°C) and even as low as 0°C. Furthermore, the enteropathogenic yersiniae can likewise adapt to and thrive under modified atmospheric conditions that are often used in conjunction with colder temperatures as common methods of food preservation. Survival and cell growth at low temperatures are accomplished via a short-term, cold-shock response, in which a variety of stress response proteins are produced that mediate bacterial adaptation to the sudden drop in temperature (reviewed in). Both YE and YPT are also capable of more long-term cold adaptation, a process that requires polynucleotide phosphorylase (PNPase), a cold-shock exoribonuclease that enhances both T3SS function as well as promoting growth under cold conditions.

Pathogenic YE produce insecticidal toxins, encoded by tc (toxin complex-like) genes located within a chromosomal pathogenicity island. These insecticidal toxins are expressed at low temperatures, but they are nonetheless thought to possess virulence functions in mammalian hosts. It is possible that the presence of these insecticide toxins suggests that the normal life cycle of YE includes an insect stage, as previously proposed, and these toxins might facilitate growth of the organisms in refrigerated food products. Tc proteins in YPT, on the other hand, do not possess insecticide activity but rather confer toxicity to mammalian cells and might, therefore, play a role in human disease.

The presence of β-lactamases that confer antibiotic resistance to some pathogenic strains of YE underscores the importance of surveillance for these pathogenic organisms. While these organisms are not monitored nationally, yersiniosis incidence rates and patient demographics in the United States are collected annually by the Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network (FoodNet). FoodNet reported 1,355 and 18 human yersiniosis cases of YE and YPT, respectively, in the U.S. between 1996 and 2007. However, based on FoodNet's assessments, cases of yersiniosis, especially those caused by YPT, are likely under-estimated in the U.S. due to lack of testing and difficulty associated with culturing the yersiniae on standard media.

2. Conclusions

YE is the major cause of yersiniosis in humans, although prevalence of YPT-associated disease is likely underreported due to lack of surveillance and differences in applied isolation strategies. Extreme heterogeneity among strains of YE and YPT further complicates efforts to link contamination to the source and monitor human disease in a uniform manner comparable to other more thoroughly studied food-borne pathogens (e.g., Salmonella). Although a plethora of animal hosts serve as reservoirs for both YE and YPT, human disease-associated yersiniae are most prevalent in swine. In healthy individuals, the resulting illness can manifest as mild, self-limiting diarrhea, but in young children and immunocompromised individuals yersiniosis can represent a significant source of morbidity and mortality. Additionally, chronic diseases, such as reactive arthritis and secondary (or nosocomially derived) complications such as sepsis, can develop in immune compromised persons.

YE and YPT are heterogeneous organisms that differ in genomic content and degree of pathogenicity. Two pathogenic strains (1B/O:8 and 3/O:9) have been sequenced and compared to gain insight into virulence mechanisms required to initiate infection and cause acute symptoms or chronic conditions in patients. YE infection is generally established via consumption of contaminated food or water and involves adherence to and translocation across the intestinal barrier via M cells. Other virulence factors include the pYV plasmid, which encodes a T3SS essential for YE pathogenicity, and the chromosomal HPI locus found in highly pathogenic strains. Pathogenic YPT strains encode a novel superantigenic toxin, YPM that contributes to systemic infections and a PhoP/Q system important for regulation of bacterial survival and growth within macrophages. Type IV pilus genes and a recently discovered T6SS also contribute to yersiniae virulence. While a great deal of molecular work has contributed significantly to a better understanding of YE and YPT pathogenicity, there is much to be gained from future studies, particularly those aimed at dissecting the contributions of various virulence factor combinations to pathogenicity, the resulting type of infection, and ability of the host immune system to clear the bacteria. Very little is known about yersiniae-associated autoimmune disease and other chronic conditions. For instance, YPT is much less studied than YE and thus might be underappreciated as a causative agent of yersiniosis. As such, yersiniosis surveillance efforts concentrate almost exclusively on YE, making attempts to accurately estimate YPT-associated gastroenteritis incidence nearly impossible.

Enteropathogenic YE and YPT cause yersiniosis globally and are of significant concern to the pork industry. The ability of the enteropathogenic yersiniae to replicate and thrive at refrigeration temperatures, coupled with their seemingly ubiquitous nature, suggests that future and more uniform surveillance measures are inevitable and requisite. At present, enteropathogenic yersiniae cases are likely underestimated; however, recent preventative measures in the pork industry and increased attention, both in the research laboratories and clinics, will provide much needed insight and better strategies for managing yersiniosis. Furthermore, more thorough and uniform surveillance measures will allow us to more accurately gauge national and global yersiniosis trends and better predict which agricultural, hygienic, and clinical efforts are effective in reducing the incidence of yersiniosis infection in the general population.

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    Bottone EJ. Yersinia enterocolitica: overview and epidemiologic correlates. Microbes and Infection. 1999;1(4):323-333.

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    Fukushima H, Ito Y, Saito K. Role of the fly in the transport of Yersinia enterocolitica. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 1979;38(5):1009-1010.

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    Bottone EJ. Yersinia enterocolitica: the charisma continues. Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 1997;10(2):257-276.

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    Pepe JC, Miller VL. The biological role of invasin during a Yersinia enterocolitica infection. Infectious Agents and Disease. 1993;2(4):236-241.

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    Pepe JC, Miller VL. Yersinia enterocolitica invasin: a primary role in the initiation of infection. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 1993;90(14):6473-6477.

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    Trülzsch K, Oellerich MF, Heesemann J. Invasion and dissemination of Yersinia enterocolitica in the mouse infection model. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. 2007;603:279-285.

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    Hagensee ME. Mycotic aortic aneurysm due to Yersinia enterocolitica. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 1994;19(4):801-802.

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    Mercié P, Morlat P, N'gako A, et al. Aortic aneurysms due to Yersinia enterocolitica: three new cases and a review of the literature. Journal des Maladies Vasculaires. 1996;21(2):68-71.

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    Plotkin GR, O’Rourke JN. Mycotic aneurysm due to Yersinia enterocolitica. American Journal of the Medical Sciences. 1981;281(1):35-42.

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    Prentice MB, Fortineau N, Lambert T, Voinnesson A, Cope D. Yersinia enterocolitica and mycotic aneurysm. Lancet. 1993;341(8859):1535-1536.

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    Tame S, De Wit D, Meek A. Yersinia enterocolitica and mycotic aneurysm. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Surgery. 1998;68(11):813-814.

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    Van Noyen R, Peeters P, Van Dessel F, Vandepitte J. Mycotic aneurysm of the aorta due to Yersinia enterocolitica. Contributions to Microbiology and Immunology. 1987;9:122-126.

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    Van Steen J, Vercruysse J, Wilms G, Nevelsteen A. Arteriosclerotic abdominal aortic aneurysm infected with Yersinia enterocolitica. RoFo Fortschritte auf dem Gebiete der Rontgenstrahlen und der Neuen Bildgebenden Verfahren. 1989;151(5):625-626.

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    Fredriksson-Ahomaa M, Stolle A, Korkeala H. Molecular epidemiology of Yersinia enterocolitica infections. FEMS Immunology and Medical Microbiology. 2006;47(3):315-329.

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    Tsubokura M, Otsuki K, Sato K, et al. Special features of distribution of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis in Japan. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 1989;27(4):790-791.

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    Gaulier A, Poulton F. The place of anatomo-pathological study in the diagnosis of enterocolitis complicated by Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. Annales de Pathologie. 1983;3(4):301-305.

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    Delchier JC, Constantini D, Soule JC. Presence of anti-Yersinia pseudotuberculosis agglutinins during a flare-up of ileal Crohn's disease. Apropos of 3 cases. Gastroenterologie Clinique et Biologique. 1983;7(6-7):580-584.

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    Koo JW, Cho CR, Cha SJ, Chung CY. Intussusception associated with Yersinia pseudotuberculosis infection. Acta Paediatrica, International Journal of Paediatrics. 1996;85(10):1253-1255.

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    Koo JW, Park SN, Choi SM, et al. Acute renal failure associated with Yersinia pseudotuberculosis infection in children. Pediatric Nephrology. 1996;10(5):582-586.

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    Tobin MV, Meigh RE, Smith CL, Gilmore IT. Yersinia pseudotuberculosis ileitis presenting with severe intestinal haemorrhage. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 1988;81(7):423-424.

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    Kacerovsky-Bielesz G, Hentschel E, Rotter M. Massive intestinal bleeding caused by Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. Zeitschrift fur Gastroenterologie. 1980;18(7):372-375.

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    Bülbüloğlu E, Çiralik H, Kantarçeken B, Çetinkaya A, Gül M, Ezberci F. Yersinia pseudotuberculosis colitis presented with severe gastrointestinal bleeding. Turkish Journal of Gastroenterology. 2010;21(2):179-182.

    Not in our library10.4318/tjg.2010.0080

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    Tertti R, Vuento R, Mikkola P, Granfors K, Makela AL, Toivanen A. Clinical manifestations of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis infection in children. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases. 1989;8(7):587-591.

    Not in our library10.1007/bf01968134

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    Grant H, Rode H, Cywes S. Yersinia pseudotuberculosis affecting the appendix. Journal of Pediatric Surgery. 1994;29(12):p. 1621.

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    Parfenov AI, Chizhikova MD. Chronic and lingering Yersinia ileitis. Terapevticheskii Arkhiv. 2002;74(12):77-80.

    Not in our library

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    Logsdon LK, Mecsas J. Requirement of the Yersinia pseudotuberculosis effectors YopH and YopE in colonization and persistence in intestinal and lymph tissues. Infection and Immunity. 2003;71(8):4595-4607.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.71.8.4595-4607.2003

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    Mair NS, Fox E, Thal E. Biochemical, pathogenicity and toxicity studies of type III strains of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis isolated from the cecal contents of pigs. Contributions to Microbiology and Immunology. 1979;5:359-365.

    Not in our library

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    Deacon AG, Hay A, Duncan J. Septicemia due to Yersinia pseudotuberculosis—a case report. Clinical Microbiology and Infection. 2003;9(11):1118-1119.

    Not in our library10.1046/j.1469-0691.2003.00746.x

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    Nakamura M, Shikano T, Ueno N. A case of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis septicemia accompanied by a large abdominal tumor. Clinical Pediatrics. 1984;23(2):121-123.

    Not in our library10.1177/000992288402300214

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    Macari M, Hines J, Balthazar E, Megibow A. Mesenteric adenitis: CT diagnosis of primary versus secondary causes, incidence, and clinical significance in pediatric and adult patients. American Journal of Roentgenology. 2002;178(4):853-858.

    Not in our library10.2214/ajr.178.4.1780853

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    Konishi N, Baba K, Abe J, et al. A case of Kawasaki disease with coronary artery aneurysms documenting Yersinia pseudotuberculosis infection. Acta Paediatrica, International Journal of Paediatrics. 1997;86(6):661-664.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1651-2227.1997.tb08952.x

  49. 49.

    Rosner BM, Stark K, Werber D. Epidemiology of reported Yersinia enterocolitica infections in Germany, 2001–2008. BMC Public Health. 2010;10, article 337.

    Not in our library10.1186/1471-2458-10-337

  50. 50.

    Robins-Browne RM, Miliotis MD, Cianciosi S, Miller VL, Falkow S, Morris JG. Evaluation of DNA colony hybridization and other techniques for detection of virulence in Yersinia species. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 1989;27(4):644-650.

    Not in our library10.1128/jcm.27.4.644-650.1989

  51. 51.

    Wang X, Cui Z, Jin D, et al. Distribution of pathogenic Yersinia enterocolitica in China. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases. 2009;28(10):1237-1244.

    Not in our library10.1007/s10096-009-0773-x

  52. 52.

    McNally A, Cheasty T, Fearnley C, et al. Comparison of the biotypes of Yersinia enterocolitica isolated from pigs, cattle and sheep at slaughter and from humans with yersiniosis in Great Britain during 1999-2000. Letters in Applied Microbiology. 2004;39(1):103-108.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1472-765x.2004.01548.x

  53. 53.
    The Complete Genome Sequence and Comparative Genome Analysis of the High Pathogenicity Yersinia enterocolitica Strain 8081 · 2006
    No notice
  54. 54.

    Wang X, Li Y, Jing H, et al. Complete genome sequence of a Yersinia enterocolitica “old world” (3/o:9) strain and comparison with the “new world” (1B/O:8) strain. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2011;49(4):1251-1259.

    Not in our library10.1128/jcm.01921-10

  55. 55.

    Pelludat C, Rakin A, Jacobi CA, Schubert S, Heesemann J. The yersiniabactin biosynthetic gene cluster of Yersinia enterocolitica: organization and siderophore-dependent regulation. Journal of Bacteriology. 1998;180(3):538-546.

    Not in our library10.1128/jb.180.3.538-546.1998

  56. 56.

    Iwobi A, Heesemann J, Garcia E, Igwe E, Noelting C, Rakin A. Novel virulence-associated type II secretion system unique to high-pathogenicity Yersinia enterocolitica. Infection and Immunity. 2003;71(4):1872-1879.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.71.4.1872-1879.2003

  57. 57.

    Lee LA, Taylor J, Carter GP, Quinn B, Farmer III. JJ, Tauxe RV. Yersinia enterocolitica O:3: an emerging cause of pediatric gastroenteritis in the United States. Journal of Infectious Diseases. 1991;163(3):660-663.

    Not in our library10.1093/infdis/163.3.660

  58. 58.

    Tsubokura M, Aleksić S. A simplified antigenic scheme for serotyping of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis: phenotypic characterization of reference strains and preparation of O and H factor sera. Contributions to Microbiology and Immunology. 1995;13:99-105.

    Not in our library

  59. 59.

    Fukushima H, Gomyoda M, Hashimoto N, et al. Putative origin of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis in Western and Eastern countries. A comparison of restriction endonuclease analysis of virulence plasmids. Zentralblatt fur Bakteriologie. 1998;288(1):93-102.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0934-8840(98)80105-9

  60. 60.

    Fukushima H, Gomyoda M, Kaneko S. Mice and moles inhabiting mountainous areas of Shimane Peninsula as sources of infection with Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 1990;28(11):2448-2455.

    Not in our library10.1128/jcm.28.11.2448-2455.1990

  61. 61.

    Fukushima H, Tsubokura M, Otsuki K. Epidemiological study of Yersinia enterocolitica and Yersinia pseudotuberculosis infections in Shimane Prefecture, Japan. Zentralblatt fur Bakteriologie Mikrobiologie und Hygiene. 1985;180(5-6):515-527.

    Not in our library

  62. 62.

    Bogdanovich TM, Carniel E, Fukushima H, Skurnik M. Genetic (sero) typing of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. 2003;529:337-340.

    Not in our library10.1007/0-306-48416-1_65

  63. 63.

    Fukushima H, Matsuda Y, Seki R, et al. Geographical heterogeneity between Far Eastern and western countries in prevalence of the virulence plasmid, the superantigen Yersinia pseudotuberculosis-derived mitogen, and the high-pathogenicity island among Yersinia pseudotuberculosis strains. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2001;39(10):3541-3547.

    Not in our library10.1128/jcm.39.10.3541-3547.2001

  64. 64.

    Buchrieser C, Brosch R, Bach S, Guiyoule A, Carniel E. The high-pathogenicity island of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis can be inserted into any of the three chromosomal asn tRNA genes. Molecular Microbiology. 1998;30(5):965-978.

    Not in our library10.1046/j.1365-2958.1998.01124.x

  65. 65.

    De Almeida AMP, Guiyoule A, Guilvout I, Iteman I, Baranton G, Carniel E. Chromosomal irp2 gene in Yersinia: distribution, expression, deletion and impact on virulence. Microbial Pathogenesis. 1993;14(1):9-21.

    Not in our library10.1006/mpat.1993.1002

  66. 66.

    Rakin A, Urbitsch P, Heesemann J. Evidence for two evolutionary lineages of highly pathogenic Yersinia species. Journal of Bacteriology. 1995;177(9):2292-2298.

    Not in our library10.1128/jb.177.9.2292-2298.1995

  67. 67.

    Cornelis GR, Biot T, Lambert de Rouvroit C, et al. The Yersinia yop regulon. Molecular Microbiology. 1989;3(10):1455-1459.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1365-2958.1989.tb00129.x

  68. 68.

    Carnoy C, Mullet C, Müller-Alouf H, Leteurtre E, Simonet M. Superantigen YPMa exacerbates the virulence of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis in mice. Infection and Immunity. 2000;68(5):2553-2559.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.68.5.2553-2559.2000

  69. 69.

    Carniel E. The Yersinia high-pathogenicity island. International Microbiology. 1999;2(3):161-167.

    Not in our library

  70. 70.

    Abe J, Takeda T. Characterization of a superantigen produced by Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. Preparative Biochemistry and Biotechnology. 1997;27(2-3):173-208.

    Not in our library10.1080/10826069708000075

  71. 71.

    Ueshiba H, Kato H, Miyoshi-Akiyama T, et al. Analysis of the superantigen-producing ability of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis strains of various serotypes isolated from patients with systemic or gastroenteric infections, wildlife animals and natural environments. Zentralblatt fur Bakteriologie. 1998;288(2):277-291.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0934-8840(98)80051-0

  72. 72.

    Yoshino KI, Ramamurthy T, Nair GB, et al. Geographical heterogeneity between Far East and Europe in prevalence of ypm gene encoding the novel superantigen among Yersinia pseudotuberculosis strains. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 1995;33(12):3356-3358.

    Not in our library10.1128/jcm.33.12.3356-3358.1995

  73. 73.

    Bergsbaken T, Cookson BT. Innate immune response during Yersinia infection: critical modulation of cell death mechanisms through phagocyte activation. Journal of Leukocyte Biology. 2009;86(5):1153-1158.

    Not in our library10.1189/jlb.0309146

  74. 74.

    Sebbane F, Gardner D, Long D, Gowen BB, Hinnebusch BJ. Kinetics of disease progression and host response in a rat model of bubonic plague. American Journal of Pathology. 2005;166(5):1427-1439.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0002-9440(10)62360-7

  75. 75.
    Macrophage Activation Redirects Yersinia-Infected Host Cell Death from Apoptosis to Caspase-1-Dependent Pyroptosis · 2007
    No notice
  76. 76.

    Guinet F, Avé P, Jones L, Huerre M, Carniel E. Defective innate cell response and lymph node infiltration specify Yersinia pestis infection. PLoS ONE. 2008;3(2).

    Not in our library10.1371/journal.pone.0001688

  77. 77.

    Brubaker RR. Factors promoting acute and chronic diseases caused by yersiniae. Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 1991;4(3):309-324.

    Not in our library10.1128/cmr.4.3.309

  78. 78.

    Gemski P, Lazere JR, Casey T, Wohlhieter JA. Presence of a virulence-associated plasmid in Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. Infection and Immunity. 1980;28(3):1044-1047.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.28.3.1044-1047.1980

  79. 79.

    Portnoy DA, Falkow S. Virulence-associated plasmids from Yersinia enterocolitica and Yersinia pestis. Journal of Bacteriology. 1981;148(3):877-883.

    Not in our library10.1128/jb.148.3.877-883.1981

  80. 80.

    Gehring AM, DeMoll E, Fetherston JD, et al. Iron acquisition in plague: modular logic in enzymatic biogenesis of yersiniabactin by Yersinia pestis. Chemistry and Biology. 1998;5(10):573-586.

    Not in our library10.1016/s1074-5521(98)90115-6

  81. 81.

    Rakin A, Noelting C, Schubert S, Heesemann J. Common and specific characteristics of the high-pathogenicity island of Yersinia enterocolitica. Infection and Immunity. 1999;67(10):5265-5274.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.67.10.5265-5274.1999

  82. 82.

    Fetherston JD, Bearden SW, Perry RD. YbtA, an AraC-type regulator of the Yersinia pestis pesticin/yersiniabactin receptor. Molecular Microbiology. 1996;22(2):315-325.

    Not in our library10.1046/j.1365-2958.1996.00118.x

  83. 83.

    Heesemann J, Hantke K, Vocke a T, et al. Virulence of Yersinia enterocolitica is closely associated with siderophore production, expression of an iron-repressible outer membrane polypeptide of 65,000 Da and pesticin sensitivity. Molecular Microbiology. 1993;8(2):397-408.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1365-2958.1993.tb01583.x

  84. 84.

    Carniel E. The Yersinia high-pathogenicity island: an iron-uptake island. Microbes and Infection. 2001;3(7):561-569.

    Not in our library10.1016/s1286-4579(01)01412-5

  85. 85.

    Carniel E, Guilvout I, Prentice M. Characterization of a large chromosomal “high-pathogenicity island“ in biotype 1B Yersinia enterocolitica. Journal of Bacteriology. 1996;178(23):6743-6751.

    Not in our library10.1128/jb.178.23.6743-6751.1996

  86. 86.

    Abe J, Takeda T, Watanabe Y, et al. Evidence for superantigen production by Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. Journal of Immunology. 1993;151(8):4183-4188.

    Not in our library

  87. 87.

    Uchiyama T, Miyoshi-Akiyama T, Kato H, Fujimaki W, Imanishi K, Yan XJ. Superantigenic properties of a novel mitogenic substance produced by Yersinia pseudotuberculosis isolated from patients manifesting acute and systemic symptoms. Journal of Immunology. 1993;151(8):4407-4413.

    Not in our library

  88. 88.

    Ramamurthy T, Yoshino KI, Abe J, Ikeda N, Takeda T. Purification, characterization and cloning of a novel variant of the superantigen Yersinia pseudoturberculosis-derived mitogen. FEBS Letters. 1997;413(1):174-176.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0014-5793(97)00909-5

  89. 89.

    Carnoy C, Floquet S, Marceau M, et al. The superantigen gene ypm is located in an unstable chromosomal locus of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. Journal of Bacteriology. 2002;184(16):4489-4499.

    Not in our library10.1128/jb.184.16.4489-4499.2002

  90. 90.

    Schiano CA, Bellows LE, Lathem WW. The small RNA chaperone Hfq is required for the virulence of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. Infection and Immunity. 2010;78(5):2034-2044.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.01046-09

  91. 91.

    Nakao H, Watanabe H, Nakayama SI, Takeda T. Yst gene expression in Yersinia enterocolitica is positively regulated by a chromosomal region that is highly homologous to Escherichia coli host factor 1 gene (hfq). Molecular Microbiology. 1995;18(5):859-865.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1365-2958.1995.18050859.x

  92. 92.

    Groisman EA. The pleiotropic two-component regulatory system PhoP-PhoQ. Journal of Bacteriology. 2001;183(6):1835-1842.

    Not in our library10.1128/jb.183.6.1835-1842.2001

  93. 93.

    Grabenstein JP, Marceau M, Pujol C, Simonet M, Bliska JB. The response regulator PhoP of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis is important for replication in macrophages and for virulence. Infection and Immunity. 2004;72(9):4973-4984.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.72.9.4973-4984.2004

  94. 94.

    Oyston PCF, Dorrell N, Williams K, et al. The response regulator PhoP is important for survival under conditions of macrophage-induced stress and virulence in Yersinia pestis. Infection and Immunity. 2000;68(6):3419-3425.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.68.6.3419-3425.2000

  95. 95.

    Rebeil R, Ernst RK, Gowen BB, Miller SI, Hinnebusch BJ. Variation in lipid A structure in the pathogenic yersiniae. Molecular Microbiology. 2004;52(5):1363-1373.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1365-2958.2004.04059.x

  96. 96.

    Champion OL, Karlyshev AV, Cooper IA, et al. Yersinia pseudotuberculosis mntH functions in intracellular manganese accumulation that is essential for virulence and survival in cells expressing functional Nramp1. Microbiology. 2011;157, part 4:1115-1122.

    Not in our library10.1099/mic.0.045807-0

  97. 97.

    Matsumoto H, Young GM. Translocated effectors of Yersinia. Current Opinion in Microbiology. 2009;12(1):94-100.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.mib.2008.12.005

  98. 98.

    Ellison DW, Lawrenz MB, Miller VL. Invasin and beyond: regulation of Yersinia virulence by RovA. Trends in Microbiology. 2004;12(6):296-300.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.tim.2004.04.006

  99. 99.

    Ellison DW, Young B, Nelson K, Miller VL. YmoA negatively regulates expression of invasin from Yersinia enterocolitica. Journal of Bacteriology. 2003;185(24):7153-7159.

    Not in our library10.1128/jb.185.24.7153-7159.2003

  100. 100.

    Ellison DW, Miller VL. H-NS represses inv transcription in Yersinia enterocolitica through competition with RovA and interaction with YmoA. Journal of Bacteriology. 2006;188(14):5101-5112.

    Not in our library10.1128/jb.00862-05

  101. 101.

    Ellison DW, Miller VL. Regulation of virulence by members of the MarR/SlyA family. Current Opinion in Microbiology. 2006;9(2):153-159.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.mib.2006.02.003

  102. 102.

    Nagel G, Lahrz A, Dersch P. Environmental control of invasin expression in Yersinia pseudotuberculosis is mediated by regulation of RovA, a transcriptional activator of the SlyA/Hor family. Molecular Microbiology. 2001;41(6):1249-1269.

    Not in our library10.1046/j.1365-2958.2001.02522.x

  103. 103.

    Revell PA, Miller VL. A chromosomally encoded regulator is required for expression of the Yersinia enterocolitica inv gene and for virulence. Molecular Microbiology. 2000;35(3):677-685.

    Not in our library10.1046/j.1365-2958.2000.01740.x

  104. 104.

    Balligand G, Laroche Y, Cornelis G. Genetic analysis of virulence plasmid from a serogroup 9 Yersinia enterocolitica strain: role of outer membrane protein P1 in resistance to human serum and autoagglutination. Infection and Immunity. 1985;48(3):782-786.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.48.3.782-786.1985

  105. 105.

    Heise T, Dersch P. Identification of a domain in Yersinia virulence factor YadA that is crucial for extracellular matrix-specific cell adhesion and uptake. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2006;103(9):3375-3380.

    Not in our library10.1073/pnas.0507749103

  106. 106.

    Martinez RJ. Thermoregulation-dependent expression of Yersinia enterocolitica protein 1 imparts serum resistance to Escherichia coli K-12. Journal of Bacteriology. 1989;171(7):3732-3739.

    Not in our library10.1128/jb.171.7.3732-3739.1989

  107. 107.

    Cornelis GR, Wolf-Watz H. The Yersinia Yop virulon: a bacterial system for subverting eukaryotic cells. Molecular Microbiology. 1997;23(5):861-867.

    Not in our library10.1046/j.1365-2958.1997.2731623.x

  108. 108.

    Skurnik M, Toivanen P. LcrF is the temperature-regulated activator of the yadA gene of Yersinia enterocolitica and Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. Journal of Bacteriology. 1992;174(6):2047-2051.

    Not in our library10.1128/jb.174.6.2047-2051.1992

  109. 109.

    Pepe JC, Wachtel MR, Wagar E, Miller VL. Pathogenesis of defined invasion mutants of Yersinia enterocolitica in a BALB/c mouse model of infection. Infection and Immunity. 1995;63(12):4837-4848.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.63.12.4837-4848.1995

  110. 110.

    Bolin I, Wolf Watz H. Molecular cloning of the temperature-inducible outer membrane protein 1 of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. Infection and Immunity. 1984;43(1):72-78.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.43.1.72-78.1984

  111. 111.

    Han YW, Miller VL. Reevaluation of the virulence phenotype of the inv yada double mutants of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. Infection and Immunity. 1997;65(1):327-330.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.65.1.327-330.1997

  112. 112.

    Rosqvist R, Skurnik M, Wolf-Watz H. Increased virulence of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis by two independent mutations. Nature. 1988;334(6182):522-525.

    Not in our library10.1038/334522a0

  113. 113.

    Eitel J, Heise T, Thiesen U, Dersch P. Cell invasion and IL-8 production pathways initiated by YadA of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis require common signalling molecules (FAK, c-Src, Ras) and distinct cell factors. Cellular Microbiology. 2005;7(1):63-77.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1462-5822.2004.00434.x

  114. 114.

    Schmid Y, Grassl GA, Bühler OT, Skurnik M, Autenrieth IB, Bohn E. Yersinia enterocolitica adhesin A induces production of interleukin-8 in epithelial cells. Infection and Immunity. 2004;72(12):6780-6789.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.72.12.6780-6789.2004

  115. 115.

    Laitenen O, Tuuhea J, Ahvonen P. Polyarthritis associated with Yersinia enterocolitica infection. Clinical features and laboratory findings in nine cases with severe joint symptoms. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 1972;31(1):34-39.

    Not in our library10.1136/ard.31.1.34

  116. 116.

    Laitinen O, Leirisalo M, Skylv G. Relation between HLA-B27 and clinical features in patients with yersinia arthritis. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 1977;20(5):1121-1124.

    Not in our library10.1002/art.1780200512

  117. 117.

    Lahesmaa R, Eerola E, Toivanen A. Does reduced erythrocyte C3b receptor (CR1) activity contribute to the pathogenesis of yersinia triggered reactive arthritis? Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 1992;51(1):97-100.

    Not in our library10.1136/ard.51.1.97

  118. 118.

    Lahesmaa R, Yssel H, Batsford S, et al. Yersinia enterocolitica activates a T helper type 1-like T cell subset in reactive arthritis. Journal of Immunology. 1992;148(10):3079-3085.

    Not in our library

  119. 119.

    Skurnik M. Role of YadA in Yersinia-enterocolitica-induced reactive arthritis: a hypothesis. Trends in Microbiology. 1995;3(8):318-319.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0966-842x(00)88961-1

  120. 120.

    Biedzka-Sarek M, Jarva H, Hyytiäinen H, Meri S, Skurnik M. Characterization of complement factor H binding to Yersinia enterocolitica serotype O:3. Infection and Immunity. 2008;76(9):4100-4109.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.00313-08

  121. 121.

    Biedzka-Sarek M, Salmenlinna S, Gruber M, Lupas AN, Meri S, Skurnik M. Functional mapping of YadA- and Ail-mediated binding of human factor H to Yersinia enterocolitica serotype O:3. Infection and Immunity. 2008;76(11):5016-5027.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.00314-08

  122. 122.

    Biedzka-Sarek M, Venho R, Skurnik M. Role of YadA, Ail, and lipopolysaccharide in serum resistance of Yersinia enterocolitica serotype O:3. Infection and Immunity. 2005;73(4):2232-2244.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.73.4.2232-2244.2005

  123. 123.

    Kirjavainen V, Jarva H, Biedzka-Sarek M, Blom AM, Skurnik M, Meri S. Yersinia enterocoliticaserum resistance proteins YadA and ail bind the complement regulator C4b-binding protein. PLoS Pathogens. 2008;4(8).

    Not in our library10.1371/journal.ppat.1000140

  124. 124.

    Pouillot F, Fayolle C, Carniel E. A putative DNA adenine methyltransferase is involved in Yersinia pseudotuberculosis pathogenicity. Microbiology. 2007;153(8):2426-2434.

    Not in our library10.1099/mic.0.2007/005736-0

  125. 125.

    Hu Y, Lu P, Zhang Y, Li L, Chen S. Characterization of an aspartate-dependent acid survival system in Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. FEBS Letters. 2010;584(11):2311-2314.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.febslet.2010.03.045

  126. 126.

    Riot B, Berche P, Simonet M. Urease is not involved in the virulence of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis in mice. Infection and Immunity. 1997;65(5):1985-1990.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.65.5.1985-1990.1997

  127. 127.

    Lavander M, Ericsson SK, Bröms JE, Forsberg A. The twin arginine translocation system is essential for virulence of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. Infection and Immunity. 2006;74(3):1768-1776.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.74.3.1768-1776.2006

  128. 128.

    Flamez C, Ricard I, Arafah S, Simonet M, Marceau M. Phenotypic analysis of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis 32777 response regulator mutants: new insights into two-component system regulon plasticity in bacteria. International Journal of Medical Microbiology. 2008;298(3-4):193-207.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ijmm.2007.05.005

  129. 129.

    Hu Y, Lu P, Wang Y, Ding L, Atkinson S, Chen S. OmpR positively regulates urease expression to enhance acid survival of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. Microbiology. 2009;155(8):2522-2531.

    Not in our library10.1099/mic.0.028381-0

  130. 130.

    Hu Y, Lu P, Zhang Y, et al. Cra negatively regulates acid survival in Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. FEMS Microbiology Letters. 2011;317(2):190-195.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1574-6968.2011.02227.x

  131. 131.

    Cornelis GR. The type III secretion injectisome. Nature Reviews Microbiology. 2006;4(11):811-825.

    Not in our library10.1038/nrmicro1526

  132. 132.

    Quinaud M, Chabert J, Faudry E, et al. The PscE-PscF-PscG complex controls type III secretion needle biogenesis in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2005;280(43):36293-36300.

    Not in our library10.1074/jbc.m508089200

  133. 133.

    Cornelis GR. Yersinia type III secretion: send in the effectors. Journal of Cell Biology. 2002;158(3):401-408.

    Not in our library10.1083/jcb.200205077

  134. 134.

    Trosky JE, Liverman ADB, Orth K. Yersinia outer proteins: Yops. Cellular Microbiology. 2008;10(3):557-565.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1462-5822.2007.01109.x

  135. 135.

    Eitel J, Dersch P. The YadA protein of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis mediates high-efficiency uptake into human cells under environmental conditions in which invasin is repressed. Infection and Immunity. 2002;70(9):4880-4891.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.70.9.4880-4891.2002

  136. 136.

    Isberg RR, Leong JM. Multiple β1 chain integrins are receptors for invasin, a protein that promotes bacterial penetration into mammalian cells. Cell. 1990;60(5):861-871.

    Not in our library10.1016/0092-8674(90)90099-z

  137. 137.

    Mejía E, Bliska JB, Viboud GI. Yersinia controls type III effector delivery into host cells by modulating Rho activity. PLoS Pathogens. 2008;4(1, article 3).

    Not in our library10.1371/journal.ppat.0040003

  138. 138.

    Mohammadi S, Isberg RR. Yersinia pseudotuberculosis virulence determinants invasin, YopE, and YopT modulate RhoG activity and localization. Infection and Immunity. 2009;77(11):4771-4782.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.00850-09

  139. 139.

    Pettersson J, Nordfelth R, Dubinina E, et al. Modulation of virulence factor expression by pathogen target cell contact. Science. 1996;273(5279):1231-1233.

    Not in our library10.1126/science.273.5279.1231

  140. 140.

    Motin VL, Georgescu AM, Fitch JP, et al. Temporal global changes in gene expression during temperature transition in Yersinia pestis. Journal of Bacteriology. 2004;186(18):6298-6305.

    Not in our library10.1128/jb.186.18.6298-6305.2004

  141. 141.

    Straley SC, Perry RD. Environmental modulation of gene expression and pathogenesis in Yersinia. Trends in Microbiology. 1995;3(8):310-317.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0966-842x(00)88960-x

  142. 142.

    Straley SC, Plano GV, Skrzypek E, Haddix PL, Fields KA. Regulation by Ca2+ in the Yersinia low-Ca2+ response. Molecular Microbiology. 1993;8(6):1005-1010.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1365-2958.1993.tb01644.x

  143. 143.

    Cornelis GR, Boland A, Boyd AP, et al. The virulence plasmid of Yersinia, an antihost genome. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 1998;62(4):1315-1352.

    Not in our library10.1128/mmbr.62.4.1315-1352.1998

  144. 144.

    Viboud GI, Bliska JB. Yersinia outer proteins: role in modulation of host cell signaling responses and pathogenesis. Annual Review of Microbiology. 2005;59:69-89.

    Not in our library10.1146/annurev.micro.59.030804.121320

  145. 145.

    Shin H, Cornelis GR. Type III secretion translocation pores of Yersinia enterocolitica trigger maturation and release of pro-inflammatory IL-1β. Cellular Microbiology. 2007;9(12):2893-2902.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1462-5822.2007.01004.x

  146. 146.

    Petrilli V, Papin S, Tschopp J. The inflammasome. Current Biology. 2005;15(15):p. R581.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.cub.2005.07.049

  147. 147.

    van de Veerdonk FL, Netea MG, Dinarello CA, Joosten LA. Inflammasome activation and IL-1beta and IL-18 processing during infection. Trends in Immunology. 2011;32(3):110-116.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.it.2011.01.003

  148. 148.

    Miao EA, Leaf IA, Treuting PM, et al. Caspase-1-induced pyroptosis is an innate immune effector mechanism against intracellular bacteria. Nature Immunology. 2010;11(12):1136-1142.

    Not in our library10.1038/ni.1960

  149. 149.

    Hoebe K, Du X, Georgel P, et al. Identification of Lps2 as a key transducer of MyD88-independent TIR signalling. Nature. 2003;424(6950):743-748.

    Not in our library10.1038/nature01889

  150. 150.

    Ruckdeschel K, Pfaffinger G, Haase R, et al. Signaling of apoptosis through TLRs critically involves toll/IL-1 receptor domain-containing adapter inducing IFN-β, but not MyD88, in bacteria-infected murine macrophages. Journal of Immunology. 2004;173(5):3320-3328.

    Not in our library10.4049/jimmunol.173.5.3320

  151. 151.

    Karin M, Lin A. NF-κB at the crossroads of life and death. Nature Immunology. 2002;3(3):221-227.

    Not in our library10.1038/ni0302-221

  152. 152.

    Park JM, Greten FR, Wong A, et al. Signaling pathways and genes that inhibit pathogen-induced macrophage apoptosis - CREB and NF-κB as key regulators. Immunity. 2005;23(3):319-329.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.immuni.2005.08.010

  153. 153.

    Zhang Y, Ting AT, Marcu KB, Bliska JB. Inhibition of MAPK and NF-κB pathways is necessary for rapid apoptosis in macrophages infected with Yersinia. Journal of Immunology. 2005;174(12):7939-7949.

    Not in our library10.4049/jimmunol.174.12.7939

  154. 154.

    Palmer LE, Hobble S, Galán JE, Bliska JB. YopJ of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis is required for the inhibition of macrophage TNF-α production and downregulation of the MAP kinases p38 and JNK. Molecular Microbiology. 1998;27(5):953-965.

    Not in our library10.1046/j.1365-2958.1998.00740.x

  155. 155.

    Schesser K, Spiik AK, Dukuzumuremyi JM, Neurath MF, Pettersson S, Wolf-Watz H. The yopJ locus is required for Yersinia-mediated inhibition of NF-κB activation and cytokine expression: YopJ contains a eukaryotic SH2-like domain that is essential for its repressive activity. Molecular Microbiology. 1998;28(6):1067-1079.

    Not in our library10.1046/j.1365-2958.1998.00851.x

  156. 156.

    Denecker G, Declercq W, Geuijen CAW, et al. Yersinia enterocolitica YopP-induced apoptosis of macrophages involves the apoptotic signaling cascade upstream of bid. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2001;276(23):19706-19714.

    Not in our library10.1074/jbc.m101573200

  157. 157.

    Orth K, Palmer LE, Bao ZQ, et al. Inhibition of the mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase superfamily by a Yersinia effector. Science. 1999;285(5435):1920-1923.

    Not in our library10.1126/science.285.5435.1920

  158. 158.

    Boland A, Cornelis GR. Role of YopP in suppression of tumor necrosis factor alpha release by macrophages during Yersinia infection. Infection and Immunity. 1998;66(5):1878-1884.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.66.5.1878-1884.1998

  159. 159.

    Denecker G, Tötemeyer S, Mota LJ, et al. Effect of low- and high-virulence Yersinia enterocolitica strains on the inflammatory response of human umbilical vein endothelial cells. Infection and Immunity. 2002;70(7):3510-3520.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.70.7.3510-3520.2002

  160. 160.

    Gröbner S, Autenrieth SE, Soldanova I, et al. Yersinia YopP-induced apoptotic cell death in murine dendritic cells is partially independent from action of caspases and exhibits necrosis-like features. Apoptosis. 2006;11(11):1959-1968.

    Not in our library10.1007/s10495-006-0189-3

  161. 161.

    Gröbner S, Adkins I, Schulz S, et al. Catalytically active Yersinia outer protein P induces cleavage of RIP and caspase-8 at the level of the DISC independently of death receptors in dendritic cells. Apoptosis. 2007;12(10):1813-1825.

    Not in our library10.1007/s10495-007-0100-x

  162. 162.

    Erfurth SE, Gröbner S, Kramer U, et al. Yersinia enterocolitica induces apoptosis and inhibits surface molecule expression and cytokine production in murine dendritic cells. Infection and Immunity. 2004;72(12):7045-7054.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.72.12.7045-7054.2004

  163. 163.

    Bedoui S, Kupz A, Wijburg OL, Walduck AK, Rescigno M, Strugnell RA. Different bacterial pathogens, different strategies, yet the aim is the same: evasion of intestinal dendritic cell recognition. Journal of Immunology. 2010;184(5):2237-2242.

    Not in our library10.4049/jimmunol.0902871

  164. 164.

    Trülzsch K, Geginat G, Sporleder T, et al. Yersinia outer protein P inhibits CD8 T cell priming in the mouse infection model. Journal of Immunology. 2005;174(7):4244-4251.

    Not in our library10.4049/jimmunol.174.7.4244

  165. 165.

    Autenrieth SE, Soldanova I, Rösemann R, et al. Yersinia enterocolitica YopP inhibits MAP kinase-mediated antigen uptake in dendritic cells. Cellular Microbiology. 2007;9(2):425-437.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1462-5822.2006.00800.x

  166. 166.

    Fahlgren A, Westermark L, Akopyan K, Fällman M. Cell type-specific effects of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis virulence effectors. Cellular Microbiology. 2009;11(12):1750-1767.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1462-5822.2009.01365.x

  167. 167.

    Garrity-Ryan LK, Kim OK, Balada-Llasat JM, et al. Small molecule inhibitors of LcrF, a Yersinia pseudotuberculosis transcription factor, attenuate virulence and limit infection in a murine pneumonia model. Infection and Immunity. 2010;78(11):4683-4690.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.01305-09

  168. 168.

    Brubaker RR. Interleukin-10 and inhibition of innate immunity to Yersiniae: roles of Yops and LcrV (V antigen). Infection and Immunity. 2003;71(7):3673-3681.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.71.7.3673-3681.2003

  169. 169.

    Rosqvist R, Forsberg A, Rimpilainen M, Bergman T, Wolf-Watz H. The cytotoxic protein YopE of Yersinia obstructs the primary host defence. Molecular Microbiology. 1990;4(4):657-667.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1365-2958.1990.tb00635.x

  170. 170.

    Black DS, Bliska JB. The RhoGAP activity of the Yersinia pseudotuberculosis cytotoxin YopE is required for antiphagocytic function and virulence. Molecular Microbiology. 2000;37(3):515-527.

    Not in our library10.1046/j.1365-2958.2000.02021.x

  171. 171.

    Von Pawel-Rammingen U, Telepnev MV, Schmidt G, Aktories K, Wolf-Watz H, Rosqvist R. GAP activity of the Yersinia YopE cytotoxin specifically targets the Rho pathway: a mechanism for disruption of actin microfilament structure. Molecular Microbiology. 2000;36(3):737-748.

    Not in our library10.1046/j.1365-2958.2000.01898.x

  172. 172.

    Iriarte M, Cornelis GR. YopT, a new Yersinia Yop effector protein, affects the cytoskeleton of host cells. Molecular Microbiology. 1998;29(3):915-929.

    Not in our library10.1046/j.1365-2958.1998.00992.x

  173. 173.

    Shao F, Merritt PM, Bao Z, Innes RW, Dixon JE. A Yersinia effector and a Pseudomonas avirulence protein define a family of cysteine proteases functioning in bacterial pathogenesis. Cell. 2002;109(5):575-588.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0092-8674(02)00766-3

  174. 174.

    Galyov EE, Hakansson S, Forsberg A, Wolf-Watz H. A secreted protein kinase of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis is an indispensable virulence determinant. Nature. 1993;361(6414):730-732.

    Not in our library10.1038/361730a0

  175. 175.

    Dukuzumuremyi JM, Rosqvist R, Hallberg B, Åkerström B, Wolf-Watz H, Schesser K. The Yersinia protein kinase A is a host factor inducible RhoA/Rac-binding virulence factor. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2000;275(45):35281-35290.

    Not in our library10.1074/jbc.m003009200

  176. 176.
    A distinctive role for the Yersinia protein kinase: Actin binding, kinase activation, and cytoskeleton disruption · 2000
    Not checked
  177. 177.

    Sauvonnet N, Pradet-Balade B, Garcia-Sanz JA, Cornelis GR. Regulation of mRNA expression in macrophages after Yersinia enterocolitica infection. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2002;277(28):25133-25142.

    Not in our library10.1074/jbc.m203239200

  178. 178.

    Yao T, Mecsas J, Healy JI, Falkow S, Chien YH. Suppression of T and B lymphocyte activation by a Yersinia pseudotuberculosis virulence factor, YopH. Journal of Experimental Medicine. 1999;190(9):1343-1350.

    Not in our library10.1084/jem.190.9.1343

  179. 179.

    Alonso A, Bottini N, Bruckner S, et al. Lck dephosphorylation at Tyr-394 and inhibition of T cell antigen receptor signaling by Yersinia Phosphatase YopH. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2004;279(6):4922-4928.

    Not in our library10.1074/jbc.m308978200

  180. 180.

    Trülzsch K, Sporleder T, Igwe EI, Rüssmann H, Heesemann J. Contribution of the major secreted Yops of Yersinia enterocolitica O:8 to pathogenicity in the mouse infection model. Infection and Immunity. 2004;72(9):5227-5234.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.72.9.5227-5234.2004

  181. 181.

    Boland A, Sory MP, Iriarte M, Kerbourch C, Wattiau P, Cornelis GR. Status of YopM and YopN in the Yersinia Yop virulon: YopM of Y. enterocolitica is internalized inside the cytosol of PU5-1.8 macrophages by the YopB, D, N delivery apparatus. EMBO Journal. 1996;15(19):5191-5201.

    Not in our library

  182. 182.

    Heusipp G, Nelson KM, Schmidt MA, Miller VL. Regulation of htrA expression in Yersinia enterocolitica. FEMS Microbiology Letters. 2004;231(2):227-235.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0378-1097(03)00962-5

  183. 183.

    Hentschke M, Berneking L, Campos CB, Buck F, Ruckdeschel K, Aepfelbacher M. Yersinia virulence factor YopM induces sustained RSK activation by interfering with dephosphorylation. PLoS ONE. 2010;5(10).

    Not in our library10.1371/journal.pone.0013165

  184. 184.

    McCoy MW, Marré ML, Lesser CF, Mecsas J. The C-terminal tail of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis YopM is critical for interacting with RSK1 and for virulence. Infection and Immunity. 2010;78(6):2584-2598.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.00141-10

  185. 185.

    McPhee JB, Mena P, Bliska JB. Delineation of regions of the Yersinia YopM protein required for interaction with the RSK1 and PRK2 host kinases and their requirement for interleukin-10 production and virulence. Infection and Immunity. 2010;78(8):3529-3539.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.00269-10

  186. 186.

    Haller JC, Carlson S, Pederson KJ, Pierson DE. A chromosomally encoded type III secretion pathway in Yersinia enterocolitica is important in virulence. Molecular Microbiology. 2000;36(6):1436-1446.

    Not in our library10.1046/j.1365-2958.2000.01964.x

  187. 187.

    Young GM, Smith MJ, Minnich SA, Miller VL. The Yersinia enterocolitica motility master regulatory operon, flhDC, is required for flagellin production, swimming motility, and swarming motility. Journal of Bacteriology. 1999;181(9):2823-2833.

    Not in our library10.1128/jb.181.9.2823-2833.1999

  188. 188.

    Mildiner-Earley S, Miller VL, Walker KA. Environmental stimuli affecting expression of the Ysa type three secretion locus. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. 2007;603:211-216.

    Not in our library10.1007/978-0-387-72124-8_18

  189. 189.

    Walker KA, Miller VL. Regulation of the Ysa type III secretion system of Yersinia enterocolitica by YsaE/SycB and YsrS/YsrR. Journal of Bacteriology. 2004;186(13):4056-4066.

    Not in our library10.1128/jb.186.13.4056-4066.2004

  190. 190.

    Venecia K, Young GM. Environmental regulation and virulence attributes of the Ysa type III secretion system of Yersinia enterocolitica biovar 1B. Infection and Immunity. 2005;73(9):5961-5977.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.73.9.5961-5977.2005

  191. 191.

    Matsumoto H, Young GM. Proteomic and functional analysis of the suite of Ysp proteins exported by the Ysa type III secretion system of Yersinia enterocolitica Biovar 1B. Molecular Microbiology. 2006;59(2):689-706.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1365-2958.2005.04973.x

  192. 192.

    Schmiel DH, Young GM, Miller VL. The Yersinia enterocolitica phospholipase gene yplA is part of the flagellar regulon. Journal of Bacteriology. 2000;182(8):2314-2320.

    Not in our library10.1128/jb.182.8.2314-2320.2000

  193. 193.

    Zhang W, Xu S, Li J, Shen X, Wang Y, Yuan Z. Modulation of a thermoregulated type VI secretion system by ahl-dependent quorum sensing in Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. Archives of Microbiology. 2011;193(5):351-363.

    Not in our library10.1007/s00203-011-0680-2

  194. 194.

    Collyn F, Léty MA, Nair S, et al. Yersinia pseudotuberculosis harbors a type IV pilus gene cluster that contributes to pathogenicity. Infection and Immunity. 2002;70(11):6196-6205.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.70.11.6196-6205.2002

  195. 195.
    Yersinia has a tropism for B and T cell zones of lymph nodes that is independent of the type III secretion system. · 2006
    Not checked
  196. 196.

    Autenrieth IB, Hantschmann P, Heymer B, Heesemann J. Immunohistological characterization of the cellular immune response against Yersinia enterocolitica in mice: evidence for the involvement of T lymphocytes. Immunobiology. 1993;187(1-2):1-16.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0171-2985(11)80241-x

  197. 197.

    Dube PH, Revell PA, Chaplin DD, Lorenz RG, Miller VL. A role for IL-1α in inducing pathologic inflammation during bacterial infection. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2001;98(19):10880-10885.

    Not in our library10.1073/pnas.191214498

  198. 198.

    Handley SA, Dube PH, Revell PA, Miller VL. Characterization of Oral Yersinia enterocolitica infection in three different strains of inbred mice. Infection and Immunity. 2004;72(3):1645-1656.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.72.3.1645-1656.2004

  199. 199.

    Lathem WW, Crosby SD, Miller VL, Goldman WE. Progression of primary pneumonic plague: a mouse model of infection, pathology, and bacterial transcriptional activity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2005;102(49):17786-17791.

    Not in our library10.1073/pnas.0506840102

  200. 200.

    Balada-Llasat JM, Panilaitis B, Kaplan D, Mecsas J. Oral inoculation with Type III secretion mutants of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis provides protection from oral, intraperitoneal, or intranasal challenge with virulent Yersinia. Vaccine. 2007;25(8):1526-1533.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.10.016

  201. 201.

    Hartland EL, Bordun AM, Robins-Browne RM. Contribution of YopB to virulence of Yersinia enterocolitica. Infection and Immunity. 1996;64(6):2308-2314.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.64.6.2308-2314.1996

  202. 202.

    Une T, Brubaker RR. In vivo comparison of avirulent Vwa- and Pgm- of Pst(r) phenotypes of Yersiniae. Infection and Immunity. 1984;43(3):895-900.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.43.3.895-900.1984

  203. 203.

    Okan NA, Mena P, Benach JL, Bliska JB, Karzai AW. The smpB-ssrA mutant of Yersinia pestis functions as a live attenuated vaccine to protect mice against pulmonary plague infection. Infection and Immunity. 2010;78(3):1284-1293.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.00976-09

  204. 204.

    Rosenzweig JA, Jejelowo O, Sha J, et al. Progress on plague vaccine development. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 2011;91(2):265-286.

    Not in our library10.1007/s00253-011-3380-6

  205. 205.

    Rüssmann H, Panthel K, Köhn B, et al. Alternative endogenous protein processing via an autophagy-dependent pathway compensates for Yersinia-mediated inhibition of endosomal major histocompatibility complex class II antigen presentation. Infection and Immunity. 2010;78(12):5138-5150.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.00155-10

  206. 206.

    Deuretzbacher A, Czymmeck N, Reimer R, et al. β1 integrin-dependent engulfment of Yersinia enterocolitica by macrophages is coupled to the activation of autophagy and suppressed by type III protein secretion. Journal of Immunology. 2009;183(9):5847-5860.

    Not in our library10.4049/jimmunol.0804242

  207. 207.

    Moreau K, Lacas-Gervais S, Fujita N, et al. Autophagosomes can support Yersinia pseudotuberculosis replication in macrophages. Cellular Microbiology. 2010;12(8):1108-1123.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1462-5822.2010.01456.x

  208. 208.

    Autenrieth IB, Tingle A, Reske-Kunz A, Heesemann J. T lymphocytes mediate protection against Yersinia enterocolitica in mice: characterization of murine T-cell clones specific for Y. enterocolitica. Infection and Immunity. 1992;60(3):1140-1149.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.60.3.1140-1149.1992

  209. 209.

    Bohn E, Schmitt E, Bielfeldt C, Noll A, Schulte R, Autenrieth IB. Ambiguous role of interleukin-12 in Yersinia enterocolitica infection in susceptible and resistant mouse strains. Infection and Immunity. 1998;66(5):2213-2220.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.66.5.2213-2220.1998

  210. 210.

    Bohn E, Heesemann J, Ehlers S, Autenrieth IB. Early gamma interferon mRNA expression is associated with resistance of mice against Yersinia enterocolitica. Infection and Immunity. 1994;62(7):3027-3032.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.62.7.3027-3032.1994

  211. 211.

    Bohn E, Autenrieth IB. IL-12 is essential for resistance against Yersinia enterocolitica by triggering IFN-γ production in NK cells and CD4+ T cells. Journal of Immunology. 1996;156(4):1458-1468.

    Not in our library

  212. 212.

    Autenrieth IB, Heesemann J. In vivo neutralization of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interferon-gamma abrogates resistance to Yersinia enterocolitica infection in mice. Medical Microbiology and Immunology. 1992;181(6):333-338.

    Not in our library10.1007/bf00191545

  213. 213.

    Autenrieth SE, Linzer T-R, Hiller C, et al. Immune evasion by Yersinia enterocolitica: differential targeting of dendritic cell subpopulations in vivo. PLoS Pathogens. 2010;6(11).

    Not in our library10.1371/journal.ppat.1001212

  214. 214.

    Ribot EM, Fair MA, Gautom R, et al. Standardization of pulsed-field gel electrophoresis protocols for the subtyping of Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella, and Shigella for PulseNet. Foodborne Pathogens and Disease. 2006;3(1):59-67.

    Not in our library10.1089/fpd.2006.3.59

  215. 215.

    Asplund K, Johansson T, Siitonen A. Evaluation of pulsed-field gel electrophoresis of genomic restriction fragments in the discrimination of Yersinia enterocolitica O:3. Epidemiology and Infection. 1998;121(3):579-586.

    Not in our library10.1017/s0950268898001629

  216. 216.

    Iteman I, Guiyoule A, Carniel E. Comparison of three molecular methods for typing and subtyping pathogenic Yersinia enterocolitica strains. Journal of Medical Microbiology. 1996;45(1):48-56.

    Not in our library10.1099/00222615-45-1-48

  217. 217.

    Najdenski H, Iteman I, Carniel E. Efficient subtyping of pathogenic Yersinia enterocolitica strains by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 1994;32(12):2913-2920.

    Not in our library10.1128/jcm.32.12.2913-2920.1994

  218. 218.

    Thoerner P, Kingombe CIB, Bögli-Stuber K, et al. PCR detection of virulence genes in Yersinia enterocolitica and Yersinia pseudotuberculosis and investigation of virulence gene distribution. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 2003;69(3):1810-1816.

    Not in our library10.1128/aem.69.3.1810-1816.2003

  219. 219.

    Sihvonen LM, Hallanvuo S, Haukka K, Skurnik M, Siitonen A. The ail gene is present in some Yersinia enterocolitica biotype 1A strains. Foodborne Pathogens and Disease. 2011;8(3):455-457.

    Not in our library10.1089/fpd.2010.0747

  220. 220.

    Gierczyński R, Golubov A, Neubauer H, Pham JN, Rakin A. Development of multiple-locus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis for Yersinia enterocolitica subsp. palearctica and its application to bioserogroup 4/O3 subtyping. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2007;45(8):2508-2515.

    Not in our library10.1128/jcm.02252-06

  221. 221.

    Sihvonen LM, Toivonen S, Haukka K, Kuusi M, Skurnik M, Siitonen A. Multilocus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns in discrimination of sporadic and outbreak-related strains of Yersinia enterocolitica. BMC Microbiology. 2011;11, article 42.

    Not in our library10.1186/1471-2180-11-42

  222. 222.

    Palonen E, Lindström M, Korkeala H. Adaptation of enteropathogenic Yersinia to low growth temperature. Critical Reviews in Microbiology. 2010;36(1):54-67.

    Not in our library10.3109/10408410903382581

  223. 223.

    Lawal A, Jejelowo O, Chopra AK, Rosenzweig JA. Ribonucleases and bacterial virulence. Microbial Biotechnology. 2011;4(5):558-571.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1751-7915.2010.00212.x

  224. 224.

    Tennant SM, Skinner NA, Joe A, Robins-Browne RM. Homologues of insecticidal toxin complex genes in Yersinia enterocolitica biotype 1A and their contribution to virulence. Infection and Immunity. 2005;73(10):6860-6867.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.73.10.6860-6867.2005

  225. 225.

    ffrench-Constant RH, Dowling A, Waterfield NR. Insecticidal toxins from Photorhabdus bacteria and their potential use in agriculture. Toxicon. 2007;49(4):436-451.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.toxicon.2006.11.019

  226. 226.

    Bresolin G, Morgan JAW, Ilgen D, Scherer S, Fuchs TM. Low temperature-induced insecticidal activity of Yersinia enterocolitica. Molecular Microbiology. 2006;59(2):503-512.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1365-2958.2005.04916.x

  227. 227.

    Hares MC, Hinchliffe SJ, Strong PCR, et al. The Yersinia pseudotuberculosis and Yersinia pestis toxin complex is active against cultured mammalian cells. Microbiology. 2008;154(11):3503-3517.

    Not in our library10.1099/mic.0.2008/018440-0

  228. 228.

    Cornelis G. Distribution of beta-lactamases A and B in some groups of Yersinia enterocolitica and their role in resistance. Journal of General Microbiology. 1975;91(2):391-402.

    Not in our library10.1099/00221287-91-2-391

  229. 229.

    Cornelis G, Abraham EP. Beta-lactamases from Yersinia enterocolitica. Journal of General Microbiology. 1975;87(2):273-284.

    Not in our library10.1099/00221287-87-2-273

  230. 230.

    Long C, Jones TF, Vugia DJ, et al. Yersinia pseudotuberculosis and Y. enterocolitica infections, FoodNet, 1996–2007. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2010;16(3):566-567.

    Not in our library10.3201/eid1603.091106

  231. 231.

    Knapp W. Mesenteric adenitis due to Pasteurella pseudotuberculosis in young people. The New England Journal of Medicine. 1958;259(16):776-778.

    Not in our library10.1056/nejm195810162591606

  232. 232.

    Paff JR, Triplett DA, Saari TN. Clinical and laboratory aspects of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis infections, with a report of two cases. American Journal of Clinical Pathology. 1976;66(1):101-110.

    Not in our library10.1093/ajcp/66.1.101

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