Skip to content
naulon

No retraction, correction or concern found when last checked on Oct 24, 2026.

Immune Responses Induced by mRNA Vaccination in Mice, Monkeys and Humans

Alberto Cagigi, Karin Loré

Vaccines · 2021 · Review · CC BY

doi:10.3390/vaccines9010061

Abstract

In this concise review, we summarize the concepts behind mRNA vaccination. We discuss the innate and adaptive immune response generated by mRNA vaccines in different animal models and in humans. We give examples of viral infections where mRNA vaccines have shown to induce potent responses and we discuss in more detail the recent SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccine trials in humans.

References 84

  1. 1.

    Wolff J., Malone R., Williams P., Chong W., Acsadi G., Jani A., Felgner P. Direct gene transfer into mouse muscle in vivo. Science. 1990;247:1465-1468.

    Not in our library10.1126/science.1690918

  2. 2.

    Ulmer J.B., Donnelly J.J., Parker S.E., Rhodes G.H., Felgner P.L., Dwarki V.J., Gromkowski S.H., Deck R.R., DeWitt C.M., Friedman A., et al. Heterologous protection against influenza by injection of DNA encoding a viral protein. Science. 1993;259:1745-1749.

    Not in our library10.1126/science.8456302

  3. 3.

    Zhou X., Berglund P., Rhodes G., Parker S.E., Jondal M., Liljestrom P. Self-replicating Semliki Forest virus RNA as recombinant vaccine. Vaccine. 1994;12:1510-1514.

    Not in our library10.1016/0264-410x(94)90074-4

  4. 4.

    Martinon F., Krishnan S., Lenzen G., Magne R., Gomard E., Guillet J.G., Levy J.P., Meulien P. Induction of virus-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes in vivo by liposome-entrapped mRNA. Eur. J. Immunol. 1993;23:1719-1722.

    Not in our library10.1002/eji.1830230749

  5. 5.

    Kariko K., Muramatsu H., Welsh F.A., Ludwig J., Kato H., Akira S., Weissman D. Incorporation of pseudouridine into mRNA yields superior nonimmunogenic vector with increased translational capacity and biological stability. Mol. Ther. 2008;16:1833-1840.

    Not in our library10.1038/mt.2008.200

  6. 6.

    Schlake T., Thess A., Fotin-Mleczek M., Kallen K.J. Developing mRNA-vaccine technologies. RNA Biol. 2012;9:1319-1330.

    Not in our library10.4161/rna.22269

  7. 7.

    Graham B.S., Mascola J.R., Fauci A.S. Novel Vaccine Technologies: Essential Components of an Adequate Response to Emerging Viral Diseases. JAMA. 2018;319:1431-1432.

    Not in our library10.1001/jama.2018.0345

  8. 8.

    Liang F., Lindgren G., Lin A., Thompson E.A., Ols S., Rohss J., John S., Hassett K., Yuzhakov O., Bahl K., et al. Efficient Targeting and Activation of Antigen-Presenting Cells In Vivo after Modified mRNA Vaccine Administration in Rhesus Macaques. Mol. Ther. 2017;25:2635-2647.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ymthe.2017.08.006

  9. 9.

    Hassett K.J., Benenato K.E., Jacquinet E., Lee A., Woods A., Yuzhakov O., Himansu S., Deterling J., Geilich B.M., Ketova T., et al. Optimization of Lipid Nanoparticles for Intramuscular Administration of mRNA Vaccines. Mol. Ther. Nucleic. Acids. 2019;15:1-11.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.omtn.2019.01.013

  10. 10.

    Kulkarni J.A., Cullis P.R., van der Meel R. Lipid Nanoparticles Enabling Gene Therapies: From Concepts to Clinical Utility. Nucleic. Acid. Ther. 2018;28:146-157.

    Not in our library10.1089/nat.2018.0721

  11. 11.

    Sands H., Gorey-Feret L.J., Cocuzza A.J., Hobbs F.W., Chidester D., Trainor G.L. Biodistribution and metabolism of internally 3H-labeled oligonucleotides. I. Comparison of a phosphodiester and a phosphorothioate. Mol. Pharmacol. 1994;45:932-943.

    Not in our library

  12. 12.

    Reichmuth A.M., Oberli M.A., Jaklenec A., Langer R., Blankschtein D. mRNA vaccine delivery using lipid nanoparticles. Ther. Deliv. 2016;7:319-334.

    Not in our library10.4155/tde-2016-0006

  13. 13.

    Chen S., Tam Y.Y.C., Lin P.J.C., Sung M.M.H., Tam Y.K., Cullis P.R. Influence of particle size on the in vivo potency of lipid nanoparticle formulations of siRNA. J. Control. Release. 2016;235:236-244.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.jconrel.2016.05.059

  14. 14.

    Eygeris Y., Patel S., Jozic A., Sahay G. Deconvoluting Lipid Nanoparticle Structure for Messenger RNA Delivery. Nano Lett. 2020;20:4543-4549.

    Not in our library10.1021/acs.nanolett.0c01386

  15. 15.

    Lee S., Cheng Q., Yu X., Liu S., Johnson L., Siegwart D.J. A Systematic Study of Unsaturation in Lipid Nanoparticles Leads to Improved mRNA Transfection In Vivo. Angew Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 2020.

    Not in our library10.1002/anie.202013927

  16. 16.

    Persano S., Guevara M.L., Li Z., Mai J., Ferrari M., Pompa P.P., Shen H. Lipopolyplex potentiates anti-tumor immunity of mRNA-based vaccination. Biomaterials. 2017;125:81-89.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.biomaterials.2017.02.019

  17. 17.

    Amanna I.J., Carlson N.E., Slifka M.K. Duration of humoral immunity to common viral and vaccine antigens. N. Engl. J. Med. 2007;357:1903-1915.

    Not in our library10.1056/nejmoa066092

  18. 18.

    Monath T.P., Gershman M., Erin Staples J., Barrett A.D.T., Plotkin S.A., Orenstein W.A., Offit P.A. Yellow fever vaccine. Vaccines. 2013;870-968.

    Not in our library10.1016/b978-1-4557-0090-5.00043-4

  19. 19.

    Medical Advisory Committee of the Immune Deficiency Foundation, Shearer W.T., Fleisher T.A., Buckley R.H., Ballas Z., Ballow M., Blaese R.M., Bonilla F.A., Conley M.E., Cunningham-Rundles C., et al. Recommendations for live viral and bacterial vaccines in immunodeficient patients and their close contacts. J. Allergy. Clin. Immunol. 2014;133:961-966.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.jaci.2013.11.043

  20. 20.

    Francica J.R., Sheng Z., Zhang Z., Nishimura Y., Shingai M., Ramesh A., Keele B.F., Schmidt S.D., Flynn B.J., Darko S., et al. Analysis of immunoglobulin transcripts and hypermutation following SHIV(AD8) infection and protein-plus-adjuvant immunization. Nat. Commun. 2015;6:6565.

    Not in our library10.1038/ncomms7565

  21. 21.
  22. 22.
  23. 23.

    Akinc A., Querbes W., De S., Qin J., Frank-Kamenetsky M., Jayaprakash K.N., Jayaraman M., Rajeev K.G., Cantley W.L., Dorkin J.R., et al. Targeted delivery of RNAi therapeutics with endogenous and exogenous ligand-based mechanisms. Mol. Ther. 2010;18:1357-1364.

    Not in our library10.1038/mt.2010.85

  24. 24.

    van den Elzen P., Garg S., Leon L., Brigl M., Leadbetter E.A., Gumperz J.E., Dascher C.C., Cheng T.Y., Sacks F.M., Illarionov P.A., et al. Apolipoprotein-mediated pathways of lipid antigen presentation. Nature. 2005;437:906-910.

    Not in our library10.1038/nature04001

  25. 25.

    Kranz L.M., Diken M., Haas H., Kreiter S., Loquai C., Reuter K.C., Meng M., Fritz D., Vascotto F., Hefesha H., et al. Systemic RNA delivery to dendritic cells exploits antiviral defence for cancer immunotherapy. Nature. 2016;534:396-401.

    Not in our library10.1038/nature18300

  26. 26.

    Lazzaro S., Giovani C., Mangiavacchi S., Magini D., Maione D., Baudner B., Geall A.J., De Gregorio E., D’Oro U., Buonsanti C. CD8 T-cell priming upon mRNA vaccination is restricted to bone-marrow-derived antigen-presenting cells and may involve antigen transfer from myocytes. Immunology. 2015;146:312-326.

    Not in our library10.1111/imm.12505

  27. 27.
  28. 28.

    Brito L.A., Chan M., Shaw C.A., Hekele A., Carsillo T., Schaefer M., Archer J., Seubert A., Otten G.R., Beard C.W., et al. A cationic nanoemulsion for the delivery of next-generation RNA vaccines. Mol. Ther. 2014;22:2118-2129.

    Not in our library10.1038/mt.2014.133

  29. 29.

    Pardi N., Tuyishime S., Muramatsu H., Kariko K., Mui B.L., Tam Y.K., Madden T.D., Hope M.J., Weissman D. Expression kinetics of nucleoside-modified mRNA delivered in lipid nanoparticles to mice by various routes. J. Control. Release. 2015;217:345-351.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.jconrel.2015.08.007

  30. 30.

    Bahl K., Senn J.J., Yuzhakov O., Bulychev A., Brito L.A., Hassett K.J., Laska M.E., Smith M., Almarsson O., Thompson J., et al. Preclinical and Clinical Demonstration of Immunogenicity by mRNA Vaccines against H10N8 and H7N9 Influenza Viruses. Mol. Ther. 2017;25:1316-1327.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ymthe.2017.03.035

  31. 31.

    Kowalczyk A., Doener F., Zanzinger K., Noth J., Baumhof P., Fotin-Mleczek M., Heidenreich R. Self-adjuvanted mRNA vaccines induce local innate immune responses that lead to a potent and boostable adaptive immunity. Vaccine. 2016;34:3882-3893.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.vaccine.2016.05.046

  32. 32.

    Oberli M.A., Reichmuth A.M., Dorkin J.R., Mitchell M.J., Fenton O.S., Jaklenec A., Anderson D.G., Langer R., Blankschtein D. Lipid Nanoparticle Assisted mRNA Delivery for Potent Cancer Immunotherapy. Nano Lett. 2017;17:1326-1335.

    Not in our library10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b03329

  33. 33.
  34. 34.

    Geall A.J., Verma A., Otten G.R., Shaw C.A., Hekele A., Banerjee K., Cu Y., Beard C.W., Brito L.A., Krucker T., et al. Nonviral delivery of self-amplifying RNA vaccines. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2012;109:14604-14609.

    Not in our library10.1073/pnas.1209367109

  35. 35.

    Lindsay K.E., Bhosle S.M., Zurla C., Beyersdorf J., Rogers K.A., Vanover D., Xiao P., Arainga M., Shirreff L.M., Pitard B., et al. Visualization of early events in mRNA vaccine delivery in non-human primates via PET-CT and near-infrared imaging. Nat. Biomed. Eng. 2019;3:371-380.

    Not in our library10.1038/s41551-019-0378-3

  36. 36.

    Ols S., Lore K. Imaging the early fate of mRNA vaccines. Nat. Biomed. Eng. 2019;3:331-332.

    Not in our library10.1038/s41551-019-0399-y

  37. 37.

    Asselin-Paturel C., Brizard G., Chemin K., Boonstra A., O’Garra A., Vicari A., Trinchieri G. Type I interferon dependence of plasmacytoid dendritic cell activation and migration. J. Exp. Med. 2005;201:1157-1167.

    Not in our library10.1084/jem.20041930

  38. 38.

    Simmons D.P., Wearsch P.A., Canaday D.H., Meyerson H.J., Liu Y.C., Wang Y., Boom W.H., Harding C.V. Type I IFN drives a distinctive dendritic cell maturation phenotype that allows continued class II MHC synthesis and antigen processing. J. Immunol. 2012;188:3116-3126.

    Not in our library10.4049/jimmunol.1101313

  39. 39.
  40. 40.

    Liang F., Lindgren G., Sandgren K.J., Thompson E.A., Francica J.R., Seubert A., De Gregorio E., Barnett S., O’Hagan D.T., Sullivan N.J., et al. Vaccine priming is restricted to draining lymph nodes and controlled by adjuvant-mediated antigen uptake. Sci. Transl. Med. 2017;9.

    Not in our library10.1126/scitranslmed.aal2094

All 84 references

Cited by papers we hold 4

Reads

Read by people on this page

None yet.

Checked or read by AI through naulon

None yet.

A person counts once a day per paper. We keep no cookie and no address: a reader is a hash that changes every day. Any month under five reads shows no number.

Are you an author?

Is this your paper?

Claim it to add your note and be paid when agents cite it. Free.