Skip to content
naulon
Get started

No retraction, correction or concern found when last checked on Oct 17, 2026.

Antimicrobial Actions and Applications of Chitosan

Cai-Ling Ke, Fu-Sheng Deng, Chih-Yu Chuang and 1 more

Polymers · 2021 · Review · CC BY

doi:10.3390/polym13060904

Abstract

Chitosan is a naturally originating product that can be applied in many areas due to its biocompatibility, biodegradability, and nontoxic properties. The broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity of chitosan offers great commercial potential for this product. Nevertheless, the antimicrobial activity of chitosan varies, because this activity is associated with its physicochemical characteristics and depends on the type of microorganism. In this review article, the fundamental properties, modes of antimicrobial action, and antimicrobial effects-related factors of chitosan are discussed. We further summarize how microorganisms genetically respond to chitosan. Finally, applications of chitosan-based biomaterials, such as nanoparticles and films, in combination with current clinical antibiotics or antifungal drugs, are also addressed.

Full text

From PubMed Central, U.S. National Library of Medicine, as current on Oct 17, 2026. Paragraph numbers are ours, so an answer can point at one.

1. Introduction

Chitin (β-(1–4)-poly-N-acetyl-D-glucosamine) is the second most abundant polysaccharide distributed in nature. Chitin can be easily found in a variety of organisms, particularly in the exoskeletons of insects, lobsters, shrimp, and crabs. In addition, chitin (poly-(β-1→4)-2-amino-2-deoxy-d-glucopyranose) is the major source of chitosan, which is obtained by removing the acetyl group (CH3-CO) from chitin. In addition to enzymatic processes, the preparation of chitosan mainly relies on chemical processes to remove the minerals and proteins present in shellfish. Briefly, hydrochloric acid (HCl) is often utilized as the preferred reagent during the demineralization process. In the second step, sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is used at 65–100 °C for 0.5–72 h for deproteinization and deacetylation. The processes of demineralization and deproteinization profoundly affect the molecular weights (MWs) and distribution of deacetylated chitosan. For example, treatment for a long period of time and incubation at high temperatures during deproteinization often produces low molecular weight and highly deacetylated chitosan.

Due to its several unique properties, including biodegradability, biocompatibility, and low toxicity, chitosan has been extensively investigated for applications in many fields. For example, chitosan has been used as a flocking agent in water treatment, an elicitor to activate plant defenses, a supplement during food preservation and in food additives, a dehydrating agent in cosmetics, and a drug delivery carrier and a hydrogel film in pharmaceutical areas. Furthermore, the broad antimicrobial activity of chitosan against bacteria and fungi has been reported in many articles. However, the effectiveness of the antimicrobial activity of chitosan is highly dependent on the type of target microorganism. Furthermore, the mechanisms of the antimicrobial activity of chitosan are associated with its physicochemical properties. Thus, this review article highlights the antimicrobial properties of chitosan, the factors that influence its antimicrobial activity, how bacteria and fungi respond to chitosan, and what regulators are involved in this antimicrobial response. Additionally, future perspectives on chitosan, in addition to problems in further applications, are addressed.

2. Antimicrobial Actions of Chitosan

The mechanisms of action of chitosan against bacteria and fungi have been investigated and reported in many articles. Although the antimicrobial properties of chitosan are highly associated with its structure, physicochemical characteristics, and environmental conditions, in addition to the reactive hydroxyl groups at the C-3 and C-6 positions, the mode of action of chitosan against microbes can be classified as extracellular effects, intracellular effects, or both based on the targeting site of the antimicrobial effects. Because high-MW chitosan is generally unable to penetrate the cell wall and cell membrane, its potential antimicrobial effects involved acting as a chelator of essential metals, preventing nutrients from being taken up from cells extracellularly, and altering cell permeability. However, low-MW chitosan not only has extracellular antimicrobial activity but also intracellular antimicrobial activity, thereby affecting RNA, protein synthesis, and mitochondrial function. Furthermore, the mode of antimicrobial action of chitosan is highly dependent on the type of targeted microorganism.

2.1. Antimicrobial Activity against Bacteria

Gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria exhibit remarkable differences in their cell wall structure, in which gram-positive bacteria have thicker peptidoglycans and gram-negative bacteria are enriched in lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Differences in the cell surface structure of these types of bacteria also lead to distinct susceptibilities to chitosan. For example, gram-negative bacteria present a more negative charge than gram-positive bacteria because LPS is often attached to phosphorylated groups. More negatively charged cell surfaces allow the binding of cationic chitosan to phospholipids when the environmental pH is below 6.5. The potential antibacterial action of chitosan is shown in Figure 1A,B. It has been suggested that gram-negative bacteria could be more susceptible to chitosan than gram-positive bacteria, but some studies have shown that gram-positive bacteria are more sensitive to chitosan.

Teichoic acids in gram-positive bacteria are also negatively charged due to the presence of phosphate groups in their structure. However, deletion of the teichoic acid biosynthesis pathway in Staphylococcus aureus resulted in increased resistance to chitosan, indicating that the mode of action of chitosan is more complex than simple electrostatic interactions. In addition, unlike gram-negative bacteria, gram-positive bacteria have a thick cell wall, which might prevent chitosan from binding directly to the cell membrane. However, some chitosan oligomers (<5 kDa) penetrate the cell wall and influence DNA/RNA or protein synthesis. Interestingly, reports have demonstrated that chitosan (≤50 kDa) can pass through the cell wall and inhibit DNA transcription. Thus, although the molecular size of chitosan plays an important role in targeting, the structure rather than the MW of chitosan also determines its extracellular, intracellular, or both extracellular and intracellular antibacterial activity.

2.2. Antimicrobial Activity Against Fungi

Chitosan has been shown to have fungicidal effects on several fungal pathogens in plants and humans. Its antifungal properties are mainly related to the interaction of chitosan with the cell wall or cell membrane. Nevertheless, the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of chitosan against fungi vary and are highly associated with the MW and degree of deacetylation (DDA) of chitosan, solvent pH, and the type of fungus being targeted. Furthermore, the unsaturated fatty acid contents on the cell membrane might be positively correlated with chitosan susceptibility because a higher content of unsaturated fatty acids exhibits better membrane fluidity, leading to a more negative charge on the cell membrane. For example, the opposite characteristics of chitosan-sensitive and chitosan-resistant Neurospora crassa strains are related to the content of unsaturated fatty acids on the cell membranes. These data may account for, at least in part, why Candida albicans, Candida tropicalis, and other Candida species have remarkable differences in susceptibility to the same chitosan. Indeed, C. tropicalis exhibited an increase in susceptibility of more than 1,000-fold to certain chitosans compared with C. albicans. Similarly, in addition to its extracellular antifungal effects, low-MW chitosan is able to penetrate the cell wall and cell surface, leading to the inhibition of DNA/RNA and protein synthesis. Interestingly, a previous report has further suggested that chitosan affects mitochondrial activity. The mode of action of chitosan against fungi is shown in Figure 1C.

3.1. pH

A major antimicrobial effect of chitosan is electrostatic interactions between this cationic molecule and negatively charged cell walls. The pKa values of the amino groups of chitosan are 6.3–6.5, indicating that it is insoluble in alkaline solutions, organic solvents, and water when the pH is higher than 6.5. Additionally, the solubility increases with decreasing solution pH, which leads to an increase in the positive charge on the –NH3 groups of chitosan and stronger antimicrobial activity. In fact, a large number of articles have demonstrated that chitosan exhibits excellent antimicrobial activity under acidic conditions, as summarized in several review articles.

3.2. Molecular Weight

The molecular weight of chitosan determines whether it penetrates the cell surface to exert intracellular antimicrobial activity. Furthermore, the abundance of polysaccharides and a few proteins that compose the complex layers of the cell wall in both bacteria and fungi not only play important roles in pathogenesis, biotic surface adhesion, and abiotic surface adhesion, and induction of the immune response, but also offer mechanical strength and a barrier from the environment. In fact, the rigid cell wall transports molecules across the outer layer barrier via several delicate mechanisms or by simple diffusion, and the cell wall porosity and pore size determine whether a compound or molecule passes through the bacterial or fungal cell wall. The pore sizes vary between different bacteria and fungi, with a range of 2–4 nm up to 8 nm. For example, the pore sizes determined by fluorescein-labeled dextran are 2.06 and 2.12 nm in Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis, respectively, whereas Pseudomonas aeruginosa exhibits larger pores of 13 ± 5 nm. Additionally, it has been proposed that the cell wall pore sizes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, C. albicans and Cryptococcus neoformans are approximately 5.8 nm. Based on pore size, only ~5 kDa (minimum radius: 1.1 nm) globular molecules or proteins can penetrate most bacterial cell walls, and 50 kDa (minimum radius: 2.4 nm) spherical molecules or proteins should be able to pass through fungal cell walls. However, the hydration state influences sphere size, and the hydrodynamic radii of proteins are usually larger. For example, the radii of beef pancreas ribonuclease A (14 kDa), beef pancreas chymotrypsinogen A (25 kDa), and hen egg ovalbumin (43 kDa) are 1.05, 1.21 and 1.27 nm, respectively, in a nonhydrated state, but these radii increase to 1.64, 2.09 and 3.05 nm, respectively, in their hydrated state. These data suggest that globular proteins with a molecular weight of 30 kDa or less can cross the microbial cell wall under physiological conditions. Similarly, chitosan has a diameter of ~1.1 nm in its linear extended form; however, the hydrodynamic radius of hydrated chitosan (50–190 kDa) is 25.59 nm.

Reports have shown that oligo-chitosan (<5 kDa) can penetrate the cell wall, leading to intracellular antimicrobial activity. Therefore, the question is how a ~50 kDa molecular weight chitosan might be able to penetrate the bacterial cell wall to inhibit DNA transcription. Several possibilities might explain how larger chitosan molecules could enter cells: (1) Cell walls are dynamic structures that vary during replication, hyphal development, and age, and this flexibility may allow various molecules to pass through the cell wall. Indeed, a recent article has provided solid evidence of this phenomenon. Amphotericin B liposomes (AmBisomes) are liposomal delivery systems containing the antifungal drug amphotericin B. Interestingly, AmBisome, which is 60–80 nm, is able to penetrate the cell walls of C. albicans and C. neoformans (pore size of 5.8 nm). These data suggest that the fungal cell wall is capable of remodeling and that the viscoelastic properties of the cell wall help larger molecules or compounds migrate through the outer layer. (2) Chitosan might affect cell wall porosity. Many reports have shown that environmental conditions and stresses profoundly influence cell wall porosity. For example, in S. cerevisiae, cell wall porosity increases after treatment with polyethylene glycol (PEG), dithiothreitol (DTT), or ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), whereas glucanase-soluble mannoproteins decrease the cell wall porosity of yeasts. In addition to cell wall penetration, AmBisomes also transiently affect the cell wall porosity of C. albicans. Therefore, chitosan may influence the cell wall pore sizes, but there is no evidence to support this hypothesis.

3.3. DDA

Given that the amino group (−NH2) of chitosan is the most important functional group, the DDA of chitosan influences the performance of chitosan in many applications. The DDA of chitosan is highly associated with the preparation method, particularly the processing time and temperature used during chemical treatment. Longer processing times and higher temperatures usually result in a high DDA. Furthermore, chitosan with a high DDA has been shown to exhibit a more positive charge than chitosan with a low DDA in the same acidic environment. Thus, chitosan with a high DDA has stronger electrostatic interactions with the microbial cell surface, which often results in better antimicrobial activity. Indeed, studies have shown that high DDAs of chitosan exhibit stronger antimicrobial activity against bacteria.

3.4. Derivatives

Although the antimicrobial activity of chitosan is affected by the pH, MW, and DDA, the physicochemical characteristics of the C2-NH2, C3-OH (secondary hydroxyl), and C6-OH (primary hydroxyl) functional groups of chitosan also significantly influence the antimicrobial properties. However, the antimicrobial effect of chitosan is observed only in acidic environments. Thus, due to the low solubility and lack of a positive charge at neutral pH, a large number of chitosan derivatives modified with amine (N-modified) and hydroxyl (O-modified) groups by acylation, carboxylation, alkylation, and quaternatization have been developed and investigated. Furthermore, the secondary hydroxyl groups (C3-OH), which are difficult to modify, cause large steric hindrance. Herein, we mainly focus on N-modified chitosan derivatives, given that O-modified (C6-OH) chitosan derivatives are less studied. For example, many N-modified chitosan derivatives, such as acetylphenyl-thiosemicarbazone, N-benzyl and thymine-based chitosan, imino-chitosan, quaternary ammonium chitosan, and alkyl sulfonated derivatives, exhibited stronger antimicrobial activities against Botrytis cinerea, E. coli, S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, Aspergillus nigger, Aspergillus fumigatus, Candida albicans, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Alternaria solani, Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. Vasinfectum, Pythium debaryanum, and others. Furthermore, the carboxymethyl chitosan-zinc complex of either N- or O-derivatives exhibits a better cidal effect against microbes. Interestingly, both N- and O-modified (O-quaternary ammonium N-acyl thiourea) chitosan had greater bacterial growth inhibition than singly modified chitosan and pure chitosan.

4.1. Bacterial Responses

There have been few reports regarding the transcriptional responses of bacteria to chitosan. The microarray profile of chitosan-treated S. aureus SG511 showed that 84 genes and 82 genes were significantly upregulated and downregulated, respectively (Table 1). Chitosan treatment remarkably inhibited bacterial growth through downregulation of the genes involved in growth and metabolism, such as genes for RNA, protein, carbohydrate, amino acid, nucleotide, and lipid biosynthesis. Furthermore, genetic profiles have suggested that chitosan impaired oxygen consumption and preferred anaerobic respiration.

A similar finding was found in Bacillus cereus after treatment with either type of polysaccharide or chitosans A and B, in which both chitosans significantly inhibited nitrogen, amino acid, and pyruvate metabolism, and gluconeogenesis (Table 1). Moreover, several genes involved in ion transport, particularly potassium transport, were upregulated. However, B. cereus deficient in the genes required for potassium transport (the Kdp system) exhibited similar susceptibility to chitosan A and chitosan B compared to the wild-type strain, which may have been due to the Kdp system loss in B. cereus not being sufficient to block potassium uptake and enhance chitosan susceptibility.

4.2. Fungal Responses

Compared with bacteria, there have been relatively more studies showing how budding yeast and fungal pathogens respond to chitosan. In S. cerevisiae, as chitosan treatment time increased (15, 30, 60, 120, and 180 min), the number of up- and downregulated genes increased. Functional analysis showed that genes involved in endoplasmic reticulum (ER), cell wall biogenesis, cell membrane biogenesis, and stress adaptation were significantly differentially expressed (Table 2). The ER is a key organelle that synthesizes lipids and membrane-associated proteins for the plasma membrane. Furthermore, chitosan-treated S. cerevisiae exhibited less sensitivity to β-1,3-glucanase. These data suggest that the cell wall and cell membrane are the targets of chitosan. A step further is the understanding of the transcription factor (TF) in S. cerevisiae that are involved in chitosan stress responses, which are Cin5p, Crz1, and Rlm1p. Cin5p is a basic leucine zipper (bZIP) that mediates drug resistance and stress tolerance. Crz1p, a calcineurin-responsive zinc finger, is required for calcium hemostasis and is activated in response to calcium. Rlm1p is a protein kinase involved in cell wall integrity. These data suggest that chitosan may also have intracellular activity that influences gene expression.

Haploinsufficiency (HIP), homozygous deletion (Hop), and multicopy suppression (MSP) fitness assays of chitosan oligosaccharide (COS) combined with microarray analyses, showed that the response to COS is associated with the plasma membrane, respiration, and mitochondrial biogenesis, and 21 genes required for chitosan resistance in budding yeast were successfully identified (Table 2). Among these, overexpression of ARL1, which encodes a GTPase involved in the regulation of membrane organization and trafficking, resulted in reduced chitosan-induced membrane permeabilization. Interestingly, ARL1 overexpression did not confer resistance to salt and sugar stresses, and exhibited increased sensitivity to antifungal drugs, indicating that the chitosan-induced transcriptional response is distinct from those to antifungals and stresses.

Aspergillus ochraceus is one of the most abundant food-contaminating microorganisms due to mycotoxin production. Chitosan treatment caused A. ochraceus to form abnormal hyphal branches and remarkably influenced cell wall and cell membrane architectures. RNA sequencing analysis further demonstrated that chitosan inhibited genes involved in cell surface integrity and protein biosynthesis. Chitosan upregulated phospholipase-related genes involved in membrane degradation and genes involved in steroid metabolism (Table 2).

In N. crassa, chitosan treatment led to higher levels of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), leading to plasma membrane permeabilization. RNA sequencing analysis revealed that genes associated with mitochondrial function (4, 8, and 16 h treatment), peroxisome organization (4 h treatment), oxidative response (4 h treatment), and fatty acid metabolism (4 h treatment) were induced by chitosan (Table 2). Deletion of either NCU10521, which encodes a glutathione S-transferase involved in ROS detoxification, or NCU07840, which encodes a plasma membrane protein, resulted in increased chitosan susceptibility, which is consistent with the transcriptomic profile. Furthermore, genes associated with the cytoskeleton, cell wall cortex, and vesicle organization were inhibited in response to chitosan (Table 2). Interestingly, chitosan significantly induced protein synthesis in contrast to the observation in chitosan-treated A. ochraceus. These data suggest that the mode of action of chitosan is greatly dependent on the type of chitosan, the properties of chitosan and the particular fungus.

Interestingly, a recent article showed the potential mechanisms of how a fungus is more resistant to chitosan. Pochonia chlamydosporia is a nematophagous fungus that can be utilized as a biocontrol against the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne javanica. Chitosan not only promotes P. chlamydosporia growth but also improves tomato root colonization by P. chlamydosporia. Furthermore, chitosan in combination with this fungus reduces damage caused by root-knot nematodes. The greater resistance of P. chlamydosporia to chitosan could be due to two mechanisms: (1) The genome of P. chlamydosporia contains more chitosanase genes, thereby utilizing chitosan as a nutrient source. (2) Many monosaccharide transport genes of P. chlamydosporia were induced to assimilate chitosan monomers after chitosan was taken up and degraded into monosaccharides. These findings further demonstrate that the antimicrobial activity of chitosan varies among different microorganisms.

C. albicans is the most frequently isolated fungal pathogen in humans. Investigation of the mechanisms of chitosan against C. albicans was conducted via mutant library screening. These studies identified several genes potentially involved in chitosan resistance (Figure 2). The functions of these genes include adherence, antifungal-related responses, cell surface integrity, stress adaptation, mitochondrial biogenesis, and virulence-associated functions. Furthermore, several signaling pathways, such as the Hog1, Cek1/Cek2, Mkc1, Ras1-cAMP, and calcineurin cascades, were proposed to be associated with chitosan tolerance. In particular, chitosan treatment significantly reduced C. albicans cell wall thickness via inhibition of the expression of the Spt-Ada-Gcn5-acetyltransferase (SAGA) complex. Furthermore, chitosan represses mitochondrial function by inhibiting MSS2, which contradicts that observed in N. crassa during the response to chitosan. Finally, several calcineurin components and Crz1 TFs were identified during library screening. CRZ1- and calcineurin-associated deletion strains exhibited high sensitivity to both chitosan and high CaCl2 concentrations (unpublished data), suggesting that calcium homeostasis might be associated with chitosan susceptibility. Indeed, in N. crassa, the application of exogenous Ca2+ could minimize damage caused by chitosan.

5. Problems Associated with Chitosan

Despite the potential uses of chitosan against microbial infections, there are several concerning issues regarding its properties that may hinder its application: (1) Molecular weight: Chitosan does not have a defined molecular weight, and the molecular weight distribution of each chitosan increases the application difficulty of passing regulatory rules, particularly in the medical field. (2) Purity: Chitosan is made from deacetylated chitin. In general, chitosan with a higher DDA exhibits stronger antimicrobial activity. However, even after treatment with NaOH for a long time and incubation at a high temperature, chitosan with a high DDA (>90%) is produced, indicating that there is less than 10% N-acetylglucosamine in the sample. The purity of chitosan might be an issue for application, given that the small amount of N-acetylglucosamine product might affect bioactivity against microbes. (3) Solubility: Chitosan has extremely low solubility under neutral or alkaline pH conditions, and it is dissolved only in acidic environmental conditions, which limits its applications in many areas. Furthermore, a low pH results in more positive charges on chitosan, leading to stronger antimicrobial properties. However, low pH conditions may harm cells, tissues, or organs of the human body.

6. Applications of Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles and Films in Combination with Clinical Drugs against Microbes

Chitosan has been widely applied in many areas. However, the antimicrobial effects of pure chitosan and most of its derivatives are still remarkably lower than those of clinical antimicrobial drugs. Several articles have also shown that pure chitosan in combination with clinical drugs exhibits great antimicrobial activity. Thus, this section focuses on the antimicrobial effects of developed chitosan-based biomaterials with current antibacterial and antifungal drugs because chitosan not only has intrinsic antimicrobial properties but is also able to deliver extrinsic antimicrobial drugs (Table 3).

6.1. Nanoparticles

Chitosan nanoparticles are synthesized for different purposes by various methods, such as ionotropic gelation, polyelectrolyte complexation, emulsification solvent diffusion, microemulsion, and reverse micelle formation. Moreover, the antimicrobial effects of chitosan-based nanoparticles for drug and drug-free delivery systems have been intensively investigated against bacteria and fungi. For example, chitosans of different DDAs and MWs exhibited synergistic activity with sulfamethoxazole against P. aeruginosa. Chitosan nanoparticles loaded with levofloxacin or clarithromycin showed great potential against methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MASA). Additionally, chitosan-silver nanoparticles containing an antibiotic exhibited synergistic effects against fish bacteria.

6.2. Films

PEG-chitosan hydrogels containing ciprofloxacin improved the growth inhibition of E. coli compared with drug-free hydrogels and sustainably released the antibiotic for 24 hr. Similarly, the high DDA of chitosan films loaded with different antibiotics exhibited better activity against different pathogenic bacteria. Fibrin-chitosan loaded with two antibiotics (metroidazole and ciprofloxacin) enhanced anti-Enterococcus faecalis activity. A chitosan hydrogel containing ciprofloxacin and fluconazole nanoparticles exhibited significant antimicrobial activities against C. albicans, E. coli, and S. aureus. Finally, a chitosan gel with metronidazole showed great anti-Candida activity to treat vaginal infection.

6.3. Implants

Chitosan-coated titanium containing tetracycline or chlorhexidine digluconate effectively inhibited Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans and Staphylococcus epidermidis. Interestingly, a chitosan bar containing gentamicin prepared using crosslinking, solvent evaporation, and a cylinder model cutting technique, which was implanted into rabbit tibias, exhibited significant antibacterial activity, suggesting that this chitosan bar would be effective against chronic osteomyelitis.

7. Conclusions

Approximately 30,000 original research and review articles related to chitosan have been reported, indicating that this naturally occurring product has great potential applications. This review suggests that chitosan as a natural antimicrobial agent can be applied in agriculture, food, and biomedical areas. Transcriptomic analyses in chitosan-treated microbes have further concluded that the mode of action of chitosan against bacteria or fungi may have multiple intracellular and extracellular effects. Although chitosan shows great promising antimicrobial potential, most of these studies are still at the laboratory level. Furthermore, the low water solubility and the lack of defined molecular weight and purity are the major issues for future application of chitosan. The development of better strategies and optimized conditions against pathogenic bacteria and fungi is necessary.

References 223

  1. 1.

    Hudson S.M., Smith C. Polysaccharides: Chitin and chitosan: Chemistry and technology of their use as structural materials. Biopolymers from Renewable Resources. 1998;96-118.

    Not in our library

  2. 2.

    Kumar M.N.V.R. A review of chitin and chitosan applications. React. Funct. Polym. 2000;46:1-27.

    Not in our library10.1016/s1381-5148(00)00038-9

  3. 3.

    Abdou E.S., Nagy K.S., Elsabee M.Z. Extraction and characterization of chitin and chitosan from local sources. Bioresour. Technol. 2008;99:1359-1367.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.biortech.2007.01.051

  4. 4.
    Chitin and Chitosan Preparation from Marine Sources. Structure, Properties and Applications · 2015
    No notice
  5. 5.

    Tolaimate A., Rhazi M., Alagui A., Desbrieres J., Rinaudo M. Valorization of waste products from fishing industry by production of chitin and chitosan. Phys. Chem. News. 2008;42:120-127.

    Not in our library

  6. 6.

    Nishioka Y., Kyotani S., Masui H., Okamura M., Miyazaki M., Okazaki K., Ohnishi S., Yamamoto Y., Ito K. Preparation and release characteristics of cisplatin albumin microspheres containing chitin and treated with chitosan. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 1989;37:3074-3077.

    Not in our library10.1248/cpb.37.3074

  7. 7.
    Preparation and Characterization of Chitosan Obtained from Shells of Shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei Boone) · 2017
    No notice
  8. 8.

    Abebe L.S., Chen X., Sobsey M.D. Chitosan coagulation to improve microbial and turbidity removal by ceramic water filtration for household drinking water treatment. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health. 2016;13:269.

    Not in our library10.3390/ijerph13030269

  9. 9.

    Altaher H. The use of chitosan as a coagulant in the pre-treatment of turbid sea water. J. Hazard. Mater. 2012;233–234:97-102.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.jhazmat.2012.06.061

  10. 10.

    Ayad M., Salahuddin N., Fayed A., Bastakoti B.P., Suzuki N., Yamauchi Y. Chemical design of a smart chitosan-polypyrrole-magnetite nanocomposite toward efficient water treatment. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2014;16:21812-21819.

    Not in our library10.1039/c4cp03062a

  11. 11.

    Fabris R., Chow C.W., Drikas M. Evaluation of chitosan as a natural coagulant for drinking water treatment. Water Sci. Technol. 2010;61:2119-2128.

    Not in our library10.2166/wst.2010.833

  12. 12.

    Li L., Luo C., Li X., Duan H., Wang X. Preparation of magnetic ionic liquid/chitosan/graphene oxide composite and application for water treatment. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2014;66:172-178.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2014.02.031

  13. 13.

    Liaw B.S., Chang T.T., Chang H.K., Liu W.K., Chen P.Y. Fish scale-extracted hydroxyapatite/chitosan composite scaffolds fabricated by freeze casting—An innovative strategy for water treatment. J. Hazard. Mater. 2020;382:121082.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121082

  14. 14.

    Morsi R.E., Alsabagh A.M., Nasr S.A., Zaki M.M. Multifunctional nanocomposites of chitosan, silver nanoparticles, copper nanoparticles and carbon nanotubes for water treatment: Antimicrobial characteristics. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2017;97:264-269.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.01.032

  15. 15.

    Nasrollahzadeh M., Sajjadi M., Iravani S., Varma R.S. Starch, cellulose, pectin, gum, alginate, chitin and chitosan derived (nano)materials for sustainable water treatment: A review. Carbohydr. Polym. 2021;251:116986.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.116986

  16. 16.

    Picos-Corrales L.A., Sarmiento-Sanchez J.I., Ruelas-Leyva J.P., Crini G., Hermosillo-Ochoa E., Gutierrez-Montes J.A. Environment-friendly approach toward the treatment of raw agricultural wastewater and river water via flocculation using chitosan and bean straw flour as bioflocculants. ACS Omega. 2020;5:3943-3951.

    Not in our library10.1021/acsomega.9b03419

  17. 17.

    Sekine M., Takeshita A., Oda N., Ukita M., Imai T., Higuchi T. On-site treatment of turbid river water using chitosan, a natural organic polymer coagulant. Water Sci. Technol. 2006;53:155-161.

    Not in our library10.2166/wst.2006.049

  18. 18.

    Sun Y., Zhang M., Bhandari B., Yang C.H. Ultrasound treatment of frozen crayfish with chitosan Nano-composite water-retaining agent: Influence on cryopreservation and storage qualities. Food Res. Int. 2019;126:108670.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.foodres.2019.108670

  19. 19.

    Wang J.P., Chen Y.Z., Yuan S.J., Sheng G.P., Yu H.Q. Synthesis and characterization of a novel cationic chitosan-based flocculant with a high water-solubility for pulp mill wastewater treatment. Water Res. 2009;43:5267-5275.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.watres.2009.08.040

  20. 20.

    Wibowo S., Velazquez G., Savant V., Torres J.A. Surimi wash water treatment for protein recovery: Effect of chitosan-alginate complex concentration and treatment time on protein adsorption. Bioresour. Technol. 2005;96:665-671.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.biortech.2004.06.024

  21. 21.

    Yang R., Li H., Huang M., Yang H., Li A. A review on chitosan-based flocculants and their applications in water treatment. Water Res. 2016;95:59-89.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.watres.2016.02.068

  22. 22.

    Yuan D., Zhang W., Cui J., He L., Wang J., Yan C., Kou Y., Li J. Facile fabrication of magnetic phosphorylated chitosan for the removal of Co(II) in water treatment: Separation properties and adsorption mechanisms. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int. 2020;27:2588-2598.

    Not in our library10.1007/s11356-019-07026-5

  23. 23.

    Cota-Arriola O., Cortez-Rocha M.O., Burgos-Hernandez A., Ezquerra-Brauer J.M., Plascencia-Jatomea M. Controlled release matrices and micro/nanoparticles of chitosan with antimicrobial potential: Development of new strategies for microbial control in agriculture. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2013;93:1525-1536.

    Not in our library10.1002/jsfa.6060

  24. 24.

    Doares S.H., Syrovets T., Weiler E.W., Ryan C.A. Oligogalacturonides and chitosan activate plant defensive fenes through the octadecanoid pathway. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 1995;92:4095-4098.

    Not in our library10.1073/pnas.92.10.4095

  25. 25.
    Chitosan in Plant Protection · 2010
    No notice
  26. 26.

    Fan G.Z., Li X.C., Wang X.D., Zhai Q.L., Zhan Y.G. Chitosan activates defense responses and triterpenoid production in cell suspension cultures of Betula platyphylla Suk. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 2010;9:2816-2820.

    Not in our library

  27. 27.

    Hidangmayum A., Dwivedi P., Katiyar D., Hemantaranjan A. Application of chitosan on plant responses with special reference to abiotic stress. Physiol. Mol. Biol. Plants. 2019;25:313-326.

    Not in our library10.1007/s12298-018-0633-1

  28. 28.

    Jia X.C., Meng Q.S., Zeng H.H., Wang W.X., Yin H. Chitosan oligosaccharide induces resistance to Tobacco mosaic virus in Arabidopsis via the salicylic acid-mediated signalling pathway. Sci. Rep. 2016;6:26144.

    Not in our library10.1038/srep26144

  29. 29.

    Li B., Shan C.L., Ge M.Y., Wang L., Fang Y., Wang Y.L., Xie G.L., Sun G.C. Antibacterial mechanism of chitosan and its applications in protection of plant from bacterial disease. Asian J. Chem. 2013;25:10033-10036.

    Not in our library10.14233/ajchem.2013.15217

  30. 30.

    Li P.Q., Linhardt R.J., Cao Z.M. Structural characterization of oligochitosan elicitor from Fusarium sambucinum and its elicitation of defensive responses in Zanthoxylum bungeanum. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016;17:2076.

    Not in our library10.3390/ijms17122076

  31. 31.

    Narula K., Elagamey E., Abdellatef M.A.E., Sinha A., Ghosh S., Chakraborty N., Chakraborty S. Chitosan-triggered immunity to Fusarium in chickpea is associated with changes in the plant extracellular matrix architecture, stomatal closure and remodeling of the plant metabolome and proteome. Plant J. 2020;103:561-583.

    Not in our library10.1111/tpj.14750

  32. 32.

    Povero G., Loreti E., Pucciariello C., Santaniello A., Di Tommaso D., Di Tommaso G., Kapetis D., Zolezzi F., Piaggesi A., Perata P. Transcript profiling of chitosan-treated Arabidopsis seedlings. J. Plant Res. 2011;124:619-629.

    Not in our library10.1007/s10265-010-0399-1

  33. 33.
    Role of Elicitors in Inducing Resistance in Plants against Pathogen Infection: A Review · 2013
    No notice
  34. 34.

    Van Aubel G., Cambier P., Dieu M., Van Cutsem P. Plant immunity induced by COS-OGA elicitor is a cumulative process that involves salicylic acid. Plant Sci. 2016;247:60-70.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.plantsci.2016.03.005

  35. 35.
    Chitosan enhances rosmarinic acid production in shoot cultures of Melissa officinalis L. through the induction of methyl jasmonate · 2019
    Not checked
  36. 36.

    Varlamov V.P., Mysyakina I.S. Chitosan in biology, microbiology, medicine, and agriculture. Microbiology. 2018;87:712-715.

    Not in our library10.1134/s0026261718050168

  37. 37.

    Xing K., Zhu X., Peng X., Qin S. Chitosan antimicrobial and eliciting properties for pest control in agriculture: A review. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 2015;35:569-588.

    Not in our library10.1007/s13593-014-0252-3

  38. 38.

    Agullo E., Rodriguez M.S., Ramos V., Albertengo L. Present and future role of chitin and chitosan in food. Macromol. Biosci. 2003;3:521-530.

    Not in our library10.1002/mabi.200300010

  39. 39.

    Dutta J., Tripathi S., Dutta P.K. Progress in antimicrobial activities of chitin, chitosan and its oligosaccharides: A systematic study needs for food applications. Food Sci. Technol. Int. 2012;18:3-34.

    Not in our library10.1177/1082013211399195

  40. 40.

    Morin-Crini N., Lichtfouse E., Torri G., Crini G. Applications of chitosan in food, pharmaceuticals, medicine, cosmetics, agriculture, textiles, pulp and paper, biotechnology, and environmental chemistry. Environ. Chem. Lett. 2019;17:1667-1692.

    Not in our library10.1007/s10311-019-00904-x

  41. 41.

    Philibert T., Lee B.H., Fabien N. Current status and new perspectives on chitin and chitosan as functional biopolymers. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 2017;181:1314-1337.

    Not in our library10.1007/s12010-016-2286-2

  42. 42.

    Shahidi F., Arachchi J.K.V., Jeon Y.J. Food applications of chitin and chitosans. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 1999;10:37-51.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0924-2244(99)00017-5

  43. 43.

    Synowiecki J., Al-Khateeb N.A. Production, properties, and some new applications of chitin and its derivatives. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2003;43:145-171.

    Not in our library10.1080/10408690390826473

  44. 44.

    Van den Broek L.A.M., Knoop R.J.I., Kappen F.H.J., Boeriu C.G. Chitosan films and blends for packaging material. Carbohyd. Polym. 2015;116:237-242.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.07.039

  45. 45.

    Alves A., Sousa E., Kijjoa A., Pinto M. Marine-derived compounds with potential use as cosmeceuticals and nutricosmetics. Molecules. 2020;25:2536.

    Not in our library10.3390/molecules25112536

  46. 46.
    Cosmetics and Cosmeceutical Applications of Chitin, Chitosan and Their Derivatives · 2018
    No notice
  47. 47.

    Casanova F., Santos L. Encapsulation of cosmetic active ingredients for topical application—A review. J. Microencapsul. 2016;33:1-17.

    Not in our library10.3109/02652048.2015.1115900

  48. 48.

    Jimtaisong A., Saewan N. Utilization of carboxymethyl chitosan in cosmetics. Int. J. Cosmet. Sci. 2014;36:12-21.

    Not in our library10.1111/ics.12102

  49. 49.

    Kim S.K. Marine cosmeceuticals. J. Cosmet. Dermatol. 2014;13:56-67.

    Not in our library10.1111/jocd.12057

  50. 50.

    Liu L.P., Li K.X., Ding H.P., Lv J., Zhang J. Study on preparation of a chitosan/vitamin C complex and its properties in cosmetics. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2020;15:1-9.

    Not in our library

  51. 51.

    Sionkowska A., Kaczmarek B., Michalska M., Lewandowska K., Grabska S. Preparation and characterization of collagen/chitosan/hyaluronic acid thin films for application in hair care cosmetics. Pure Appl. Chem. 2017;89:1829-1839.

    Not in our library10.1515/pac-2017-0314

  52. 52.

    Felt O., Buri P., Gurny R. Chitosan: A unique polysaccharide for drug delivery. Drug Dev. Ind. Pharm. 1998;24:979-993.

    Not in our library10.3109/03639049809089942

  53. 53.

    Wang Z.Y., Zhang Q. Study on pulmonary delivery of peptide drugs in rats: Effects of absorption enhancers on cellular membrane fluidity. Yao Xue Xue Bao. 2003;38:957-961.

    Not in our library

  54. 54.

    Haque T., Chen H., Ouyang W., Martoni C., Lawuyi B., Urbanska A.M., Prakash S. Superior cell delivery features of poly(ethylene glycol) incorporated alginate, chitosan, and poly-L-lysine microcapsules. Mol. Pharm. 2005;2:29-36.

    Not in our library10.1021/mp049901v

  55. 55.

    Fontana C.R., dos Santos D.S., Bosco J.M., Spolidorio D.M., Chierici Marcantonio R.A. Evaluation of chitosan gel as antibiotic and photosensitizer delivery. Drug Deliv. 2008;15:417-422.

    Not in our library10.1080/10717540802007433

  56. 56.

    Alonso M.J., Coelho D., Engwer C., Fetzner S., Fuenzalida J., Goycoolea F., Hoffman S., Kollenbrock S., Menchicchi B., Moerschbacher B., et al. Chitosan-based nanomaterials for drug delivery and antibiotic-free bacterial control. NSTI-Nanotech. 2013;3:217-220.

    Not in our library

  57. 57.

    Ibrahim H., El-Bisi M., Taha G., El-Alfy E. Chitosan nanoparticles loaded antibiotics as drug delivery biomaterial. J. Appl. Pharm. Sci. 2015;5:85-90.

    Not in our library10.7324/japs.2015.501015

  58. 58.

    Ahmed T.A., Aljaeid B.M. Preparation, characterization, and potential application of chitosan, chitosan derivatives, and chitosan metal nanoparticles in pharmaceutical drug delivery. Drug Des. Devel. Ther. 2016;10:483-507.

    Not in our library10.2147/dddt.s99651

  59. 59.

    Alvarez Echazu M.I., Olivetti C.E., Anesini C., Perez C.J., Alvarez G.S., Desimone M.F. Development and evaluation of thymol-chitosan hydrogels with antimicrobial-antioxidant activity for oral local delivery. Mater. Sci. Eng. C Mater. Biol. Appl. 2017;81:588-596.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.msec.2017.08.059

  60. 60.

    Harris M., Alexander C., Wells C.M., Bumgardner J.D., Carpenter D.P., Jennings J.A. Chitosan for the delivery of antibiotics. Chitosan Based Biomaterials. 2017;Volume 2:147-173.

    Not in our library

  61. 61.

    Kiilll C.P., Barud H.D., Santagneli S.H., Ribeiro S.J.L., Silva A.M., Tercjak A., Gutierrez J., Pironi A.M., Gremiao M.P.D. Synthesis and factorial design applied to a novel chitosan/sodium polyphosphate nanoparticles via ionotropic gelation as an RGD delivery system. Carbohyd. Polym. 2017;157:1695-1702.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.carbpol.2016.11.053

  62. 62.
    An Overview of Chitosan Nanoparticles and Its Application in Non-Parenteral Drug Delivery · 2017
    No notice
  63. 63.

    Ali A., Ahmed S. A review on chitosan and its nanocomposites in drug delivery. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2018;109:273-286.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.12.078

  64. 64.

    Darwesh B., Aldawsari H.M., Badr-Eldin S.M. Optimized chitosan/anion polyelectrolyte complex based inserts for vaginal delivery of fluconazole: In vitro/in vivo evaluation. Pharmaceutics. 2018;10:227.

    Not in our library10.3390/pharmaceutics10040227

  65. 65.
    Chitosan Based Self-Assembled Nanoparticles in Drug Delivery · 2018
    No notice
  66. 66.

    Rao K.M., Kumar A., Suneetha M., Han S.S. pH and near-infrared active; chitosan-coated halloysite nanotubes loaded with curcumin-Au hybrid nanoparticles for cancer drug delivery. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2018;112:119-125.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.01.163

  67. 67.
    Current Advances in Chitosan Nanoparticles Based Drug Delivery and Targeting · 2019
    No notice
  68. 68.
    Chitosan-Based (Nano)Materials for Novel Biomedical Applications · 2019
    No notice
  69. 69.

    Sharif S., Abbas G., Hanif M., Bernkop-Schnurch A., Jalil A., Yaqoob M. Mucoadhesive micro-composites: Chitosan coated halloysite nanotubes for sustained drug delivery. Colloids Surf. B. Biointerfaces. 2019;184:110527.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.colsurfb.2019.110527

  70. 70.

    Sharma P.K., Halder M., Srivastava U., Singh Y. Antibacterial PEG-chitosan hydrogels for controlled antibiotic/protein delivery. ACS Appl. Bio Mater. 2019;2:5313-5322.

    Not in our library10.1021/acsabm.9b00570

  71. 71.

    Schlachet I., Moshe Halamish H., Sosnik A. Mixed amphiphilic polymeric nanoparticles of chitosan, poly(vinyl alcohol) and poly(methyl methacrylate) for intranasal drug delivery: A preliminary in vivo study. Molecules. 2020;25:4496.

    Not in our library10.3390/molecules25194496

  72. 72.

    Chen C.P., Hsieh C.M., Tsai T., Yang J.C., Chen C.T. Optimization and evaluation of a chitosan/hydroxypropyl methylcellulose hydrogel containing toluidine blue O for antimicrobial photodynamic inactivation. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015;16:20859-20872.

    Not in our library10.3390/ijms160920859

  73. 73.

    Rajasekaran P., Santra S. Hydrothermally treated chitosan hydrogel loaded with copper and zinc particles as a potential micronutrient-based antimicrobial feed additive. Front. Vet. Sci. 2015;2:62.

    Not in our library10.3389/fvets.2015.00062

  74. 74.

    Romic M.D., Klaric M.S., Lovric J., Pepic I., Cetina-Cizmek B., Filipovic-Grcic J., Hafner A. Melatonin-loaded chitosan/Pluronic (R) F127 microspheres as in situ forming hydrogel: An innovative antimicrobial wound dressing. Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 2016;107:67-79.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ejpb.2016.06.013

  75. 75.

    Hernandez P., Lucero-Acuna A., Gutierrez-Valenzuela C.A., Moreno R., Esquivel R. Systematic evaluation of pH and thermoresponsive poly(n-isopropylacrylamide-chitosan-fluorescein)microgel. e-Polymers. 2017;17:399-408.

    Not in our library10.1515/epoly-2016-0328

  76. 76.

    Wang Q., Chen S., Chen D. Preparation and characterization of chitosan based injectable hydrogels enhanced by chitin nano-whiskers. J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater. 2017;65:466-477.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.jmbbm.2016.09.009

  77. 77.

    Lopez-Velazquez J.C., Rodriguez-Rodriguez R., Espinosa-Andrews H., Qui-Zapata J.A., Garcia-Morales S., Navarro-Lopez D.E., Luna-Barcenas G., Vassallo-Brigneti E.C., Garcia-Carvajal Z.Y. Gelatin-chitosan-PVA hydrogels and their application in agriculture. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 2019;94:3495-3504.

    Not in our library10.1002/jctb.5961

  78. 78.

    Aksel H., Mahjour F., Bosaid F., Calamak S., Azim A.A. Antimicrobial activity and biocompatibility of antibiotic-loaded chitosan hydrogels as a potential scaffold in regenerative endodontic treatment. J. Endod. 2020;46:1867-1875.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.joen.2020.09.007

  79. 79.

    Iqbal D.N., Shafiq S., Khan S.M., Ibrahim S.M., Abubshait S.A., Nazir A., Abbas M., Iqbal M. Novel chitosan/guar gum/PVA hydrogel: Preparation, characterization and antimicrobial activity evaluation. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2020;164:499-509.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.07.139

  80. 80.

    Qu B., Luo Y.C. Chitosan-based hydrogel beads: Preparations, modifications and applications in food and agriculture sectors—A review. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2020;152:437-448.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.02.240

  81. 81.

    Felt O., Carrel A., Baehni P., Buri P., Gurny R. Chitosan as tear substitute: A wetting agent endowed with antimicrobial efficacy. J. Ocul. Pharmacol. Ther. 2000;16:261-270.

    Not in our library10.1089/jop.2000.16.261

  82. 82.
    A Potential Antifungal Effect of Chitosan Against Candida albicans Is Mediated via the Inhibition of SAGA Complex Component Expression and the Subsequent Alteration of Cell Surface Integrity · 2019
    Not checked
  83. 83.

    Lo W.H., Deng F.S., Chang C.J., Lin C.H. Synergistic antifungal activity of chitosan with fluconazole against Candida albicans, Candida tropicalis, and fluconazole-resistant strains. Molecules. 2020;25:5114.

    Not in our library10.3390/molecules25215114

  84. 84.

    Rabea E.I., Badawy M.E.T., Stevens C.V., Smagghe G., Steurbaut W. Chitosan as antimicrobial agent: Applications and mode of action. Biomacromolecules. 2003;4:1457-1465.

    Not in our library10.1021/bm034130m

  85. 85.

    Avadi M.R., Sadeghi A.M.M., Tahzibi A., Bayati K., Pouladzadeh M., Zohuriaan-Mehr M.J., Rafiee-Tehrani M. Diethylmethyl chitosan as an antimicrobial agent: Synthesis, characterization and antibacterial effects. Eur. Polym. J. 2004;40:1355-1361.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2004.02.015

  86. 86.

    Wang X.H., Du Y.M., Fan L.H., Liu H., Hu Y. Chitosan-metal complexes as antimicrobial agent: Synthesis, characterization and structure-activity study. Polym. Bull. 2005;55:105-113.

    Not in our library10.1007/s00289-005-0414-1

  87. 87.

    Hu Y., Du Y.M., Wang X.Y., Feng T. Self-aggregation of water-soluble chitosan and solubilization of thymol as an antimicrobial agent. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A. 2009;90A:874-881.

    Not in our library10.1002/jbm.a.31871

  88. 88.

    Raafat D., Sahl H.G. Chitosan and its antimicrobial potential—A critical literature survey. Microb. Biotechnol. 2009;2:186-201.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1751-7915.2008.00080.x

  89. 89.

    Gomez-Estaca J., de Lacey A.L., Lopez-Caballero M.E., Gomez-Guillen M.C., Montero P. Biodegradable gelatin-chitosan films incorporated with essential oils as antimicrobial agents for fish preservation. Food Microbiol. 2010;27:889-896.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.fm.2010.05.012

  90. 90.

    Kong M., Chen X.G., Xing K., Park H.J. Antimicrobial properties of chitosan and mode of action: A state of the art review. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2010;144:51-63.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2010.09.012

  91. 91.

    Hernandez-Ochoa L., Gonzales-Gonzales A., Gutierrez-Mendez N., Munoz-Castellanos L.N., Quintero-Ramos A. Study of the antibacterial activity of chitosan-based films prepared with different molecular weights including spices essential oils and functional extracts as antimicrobial agents. Rev. Mex. Ing. Quim. 2011;10:455-463.

    Not in our library

  92. 92.

    Huang L.Y., Dai T.H., Xuan Y., Tegos G.P., Hamblin M.R. Synergistic combination of chitosan acetate with nanoparticle silver as a topical antimicrobial: Efficacy against bacterial burn infections. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2011;55:3432-3438.

    Not in our library10.1128/aac.01803-10

  93. 93.

    Costa E.M., Silva S., Pina C., Tavaria F.K., Pintado M.M. Evaluation and insights into chitosan antimicrobial activity against anaerobic oral pathogens. Anaerobe. 2012;18:305-309.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.anaerobe.2012.04.009

  94. 94.

    Badawy M.E.I., Rabea E.I. Synthesis and structure-activity relationship of N-(cinnamyl) chitosan analogs as antimicrobial agents. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2013;57:185-192.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2013.03.028

  95. 95.

    Jiang L., Wang F., Han F., Prinyawiwatkul W., No H.K., Ge B. Evaluation of diffusion and dilution methods to determine the antimicrobial activity of water-soluble chitosan derivatives. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2013;114:956-963.

    Not in our library10.1111/jam.12111

  96. 96.

    Mansilla A.Y., Albertengo L., Rodriguez M.S., Debbaudt A., Zuniga A., Casalongue C.A. Evidence on antimicrobial properties and mode of action of a chitosan obtained from crustacean exoskeletons on Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2013;97:6957-6966.

    Not in our library10.1007/s00253-013-4993-8

  97. 97.

    Mohamed N.A., Sabaa M.W., El-Ghandour A.H., Abdel-Aziz M.M., Abdel-Gawad O.F. Quaternized N-substituted carboxymethyl chitosan derivatives as antimicrobial agents. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2013;60:156-164.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2013.05.022

  98. 98.
    Quaternized Chitosan as an Antimicrobial Agent: Antimicrobial Activity, Mechanism of Action and Biomedical Applications in Orthopedics · 2013
    No notice
  99. 99.

    Fiorani G., Saoncella O., Kaner P., Altinkaya S.A., Figoli A., Bonchio M., Carraro M. Chitosan-polyoxometalate nanocomposites: Synthesis, characterization and application as antimicrobial agents. J. Clust. Sci. 2014;25:839-854.

    Not in our library10.1007/s10876-013-0685-x

  100. 100.

    Younes I., Hajji S., Frachet V., Rinaudo M., Jellouli K., Nasri M. Chitin extraction from shrimp shell using enzymatic treatment. Antitumor, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of chitosan. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2014;69:489-498.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2014.06.013

  101. 101.

    Rahman P.M., Muraleedaran K., Mujeeb V.M.A. Applications of chitosan powder with in situ synthesized nano ZnO particles as an antimicrobial agent. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2015;77:266-272.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2015.03.058

  102. 102.

    Arjunan N., Kurnari H.L.J., Singaravelu C.M., Kandasamy R., Kandasamy J. Physicochemical investigations of biogenic chitosan-silver nanocomposite as antimicrobial and anticancer agent. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2016;92:77-87.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2016.07.003

  103. 103.

    Hosseinnejad M., Jafari S.M. Evaluation of different factors affecting antimicrobial properties of chitosan. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2016;85:467-475.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2016.01.022

  104. 104.

    Hanpanich O., Wongkongkatep P., Pongtharangkul T., Wongkongkatep J. Turning hydrophilic bacteria into biorenewable hydrophobic material with potential antimicrobial activity via interaction with chitosan. Bioresour. Technol. 2017;230:97-102.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.biortech.2017.01.047

  105. 105.

    Ma Z.X., Garrido-Maestu A., Jeong K.C. Application, mode of action, and in vivo activity of chitosan and its micro and nanoparticles as antimicrobial agents: A review. Carbohyd. Polym. 2017;176:257-265.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.08.082

  106. 106.

    Rivera Aguayo P., Bruna Larenas T., Alarcon Godoy C., Cayupe Rivas B., Gonzalez-Casanova J., Rojas-Gomez D., Caro Fuentes N. Antimicrobial and antibiofilm capacity of chitosan nanoparticles against wild type strain of Pseudomonas sp. isolated from milk of cows diagnosed with bovine mastitis. Antibiotics. 2020;9:551.

    Not in our library10.3390/antibiotics9090551

  107. 107.

    Raafat D., von Bargen K., Haas A., Sahl H.G. Insights into the mode of action of chitosan as an antibacterial compound. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2008;74:3764-3773.

    Not in our library10.1128/aem.00453-08

  108. 108.
    Antifungal Activity of Chitosan Nanoparticles and Correlation with Their Physical Properties · 2012
    No notice
  109. 109.

    Martinez-Camacho A.P., Cortez-Rocha M.O., Ezquerra-Brauer J.M., Graciano-Verdugo A.Z., Rodriguez-Felix F., Castillo-Ortega M.M., Yepiz-Gomez M.S., Plascencia-Jatomea M. Chitosan composite films: Thermal, structural, mechanical and antifungal properties. Carbohyd. Polym. 2010;82:305-315.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.carbpol.2010.04.069

  110. 110.

    Kim H.J., Chen F., Wang X., Rajapakse N.C. Effect of chitosan on the biological properties of sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum L.). J. Agric. Food Chem. 2005;53:3696-3701.

    Not in our library10.1021/jf0480804

  111. 111.

    Kjm K.M., Son J.H., Kim S.K., Weller C.L., Hanna M.A. Properties of chitosan films as a function of pH and solvent type. J. Food Sci. 2006;71:e119-e124.

    Not in our library

  112. 112.

    Boy R., Maness C., Kotek R. Properties of chitosan/soy protein blended films with added plasticizing agent as a function of solvent type at acidic pH. Int. J. Polym. Mater. Polym. Biomater. 2016;65:11-17.

    Not in our library10.1080/00914037.2015.1038821

  113. 113.

    Zohuriaan-Mehr M.J. Advances in chitin and chitosan modification through graft copolymerization: A comprehensive review. Iran. Polym. J. 2005;14:235-265.

    Not in our library

  114. 114.

    No H.K., Park N.Y., Lee S.H., Meyers S.P. Antibacterial activity of chitosans and chitosan oligomers with different molecular weights. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2002;74:65-72.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0168-1605(01)00717-6

  115. 115.

    Andres Y., Giraud L., Gerente C., Le Cloirec P. Antibacterial effects of chitosan powder: Mechanisms of action. Environ. Technol. 2007;28:1357-1363.

    Not in our library10.1080/09593332808618893

  116. 116.

    Seyfarth F., Schliemann S., Elsner P., Hipler U.C. Antifungal effect of high- and low-molecular-weight chitosan hydrochloride, carboxymethyl chitosan, chitosan oligosaccharide and N-acetyl-D-glucosamine against Candida albicans, Candida krusei and Candida glabrata. Int. J. Pharm. 2008;353:139-148.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ijpharm.2007.11.029

  117. 117.

    Sadeghi-Kiakhani M., Arami M., Gharanjig K. Application of a biopolymer chitosan-poly(propylene)imine dendrimer hybrid as an antimicrobial agent on the wool fabrics. Iran. Polym. J. 2013;22:931-940.

    Not in our library10.1007/s13726-013-0193-8

  118. 118.

    Bhatnagar A., Sillanpaa M. Applications of chitin- and chitosan-derivatives for the detoxification of water and wastewater—A short review. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 2009;152:26-38.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.cis.2009.09.003

  119. 119.
    Biomedical Applications of Chitosan and Its Derivative Nanoparticles · 2018
    No notice
  120. 120.
    Chitin, Chitosan, and Its Derivatives for Wound Healing: Old and New Materials · 2015
    Retracted
  121. 121.
    Chitosan: An Update on Potential Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Applications · 2015
    No notice
  122. 122.

    Sudarshan N.R., Hoover D.G., Knorr D. Antibacterial action of chitosan. Food Biotechnol. 1992;6:257-272.

    Not in our library10.1080/08905439209549838

  123. 123.

    Ke C.L., Liao Y.T., Lin C.H. MSS2 maintains mitochondrial function and is required for chitosan resistance, invasive growth, biofilm formation and virulence in Candida albicans. Virulence. 2021;12:281-297.

    Not in our library10.1080/21505594.2020.1870082

  124. 124.

    Pasquina-Lemonche L., Burns J., Turner R.D., Kumar S., Tank R., Mullin N., Wilson J.S., Chakrabarti B., Bullough P.A., Foster S.J., et al. The architecture of the gram-positive bacterial cell wall. Nature. 2020;582:294-297.

    Not in our library10.1038/s41586-020-2236-6

  125. 125.

    Rohde M. The gram-positive bacterial cell wall. Microbiol. Spectr. 2019;7.

    Not in our library10.1128/microbiolspec.gpp3-0044-2018

  126. 126.

    Gan L., Chen S., Jensen G.J. Molecular organization of gram-negative peptidoglycan. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2008;105:18953-18957.

    Not in our library10.1073/pnas.0808035105

  127. 127.

    Beveridge T.J. Structures of gram-negative cell walls and their derived membrane vesicles. J. Bacteriol. 1999;181:4725-4733.

    Not in our library10.1128/jb.181.16.4725-4733.1999

  128. 128.

    Kraus D., Peschel A. Molecular mechanisms of bacterial resistance to antimicrobial peptides. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 2006;306:231-250.

    Not in our library10.1007/3-540-29916-5_9

  129. 129.

    Raetz C.R., Reynolds C.M., Trent M.S., Bishop R.E. Lipid A modification systems in gram-negative bacteria. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 2007;76:295-329.

    Not in our library10.1146/annurev.biochem.76.010307.145803

  130. 130.

    Alburquenque C., Bucarey S.A., Neira-Carrillo A., Urzua B., Hermosilla G., Tapia C.V. Antifungal activity of low molecular weight chitosan against clinical isolates of Candida spp. Med. Mycol. 2010;48:1018-1023.

    Not in our library10.3109/13693786.2010.486412

  131. 131.

    Chen R.H., Domard A., Muzzarelli R.A.A., Tokura S., Wang D.M. Advances in chitin/chitosan science and their applications. Carbohyd. Polym. 2011;84:695.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.carbpol.2010.11.049

  132. 132.

    Goy R.C., Morais S.T.B., Assis O.B.G. Evaluation of the antimicrobial activity of chitosan and its quaternized derivative on E. coli and S. aureus growth. Rev. Bras. Farmacogn. 2016;26:122-127.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.bjp.2015.09.010

  133. 133.
    Preparation, physicochemical characterization and antimicrobial activities of novel two phenolic chitosan Schiff base derivatives · 2018
    No notice
  134. 134.

    Chung Y.C., Su Y.P., Chen C.C., Jia G., Wang H.I., Wu J.C.G., Lin J.G. Relationship between antibacterial activity of chitosan and surface characteristics of cell wall. Acta Pharmacol. Sin. 2004;25:932-936.

    Not in our library

  135. 135.

    Muzzalupo I., Badolati G., Chiappetta A., Picci N., Muzzalupo R. In vitro antifungal activity of Olive (Olea europaea) leaf extracts loaded in chitosan nanoparticles. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol. 2020;8:151.

    Not in our library10.3389/fbioe.2020.00151

  136. 136.
    Molecular Mechanisms of Chitosan Interactions with Fungi and Plants · 2019
    No notice
  137. 137.

    Ludwig D.B., de Camargo L.E.A., Khalil N.M., Auler M.E., Mainardes R.M. Antifungal activity of chitosan-coated poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid nanoparticles containing amphotericin B. Mycopathologia. 2018;183:659-668.

    Not in our library10.1007/s11046-018-0253-x

  138. 138.

    Lara H.H., Guisbiers G., Mendoza J., Mimun L.C., Vincent B.A., Lopez-Ribot J.L., Nash K.L. Synergistic antifungal effect of chitosan-stabilized selenium nanoparticles synthesized by pulsed laser ablation in liquids against Candida albicans biofilms. Int. J. Nanomed. 2018;13:2697-2708.

    Not in our library10.2147/ijn.s151285

  139. 139.

    Kalagatur N.K., Nirmal Ghosh O.S., Sundararaj N., Mudili V. Antifungal activity of chitosan nanoparticles encapsulated with Cymbopogon martinii essential oil on plant pathogenic fungi Fusarium graminearum. Front. Pharmacol. 2018;9:610.

    Not in our library10.3389/fphar.2018.00610

  140. 140.

    Garcia L.G.S., Guedes G.M.M., da Silva M.L.Q., Castelo-Branco D., Sidrim J.J.C., Cordeiro R.A., Rocha M.F.G., Vieira R.S., Brilhante R.S.N. Effect of the molecular weight of chitosan on its antifungal activity against Candida spp. in planktonic cells and biofilm. Carbohydr. Polym. 2018;195:662-669.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.carbpol.2018.04.091

  141. 141.

    Lopez-Moya F., Colom-Valiente M.F., Martinez-Peinado P., Martinez-Lopez J.E., Puelles E., Sempere-Ortells J.M., Lopez-Llorca L.V. Carbon and nitrogen limitation increase chitosan antifungal activity in Neurospora crassa and fungal human pathogens. Fungal Biol. 2015;119:154-169.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.funbio.2014.12.003

  142. 142.

    Qiu M., Wu C., Ren G., Liang X., Wang X., Huang J. Effect of chitosan and its derivatives as antifungal and preservative agents on postharvest green asparagus. Food Chem. 2014;155:105-111.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.01.026

  143. 143.
    Hydrophobic Effect of Amphiphilic Derivatives of Chitosan on the Antifungal Activity against Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus · 2013
    Not checked
  144. 144.

    Pena A., Sanchez N.S., Calahorra M. Effects of chitosan on Candida albicans: Conditions for its antifungal activity. Biomed. Res. Int. 2013;2013:527549.

    Not in our library10.1155/2013/527549

  145. 145.

    Liu H., Tian W., Li B., Wu G., Ibrahim M., Tao Z., Wang Y., Xie G., Li H., Sun G. Antifungal effect and mechanism of chitosan against the rice sheath blight pathogen, Rhizoctonia solani. Biotechnol. Lett. 2012;34:2291-2298.

    Not in our library10.1007/s10529-012-1035-z

  146. 146.

    Fang S.W., Li C.F., Shih D.Y.C. Antifungal activity of chitosan and its preservative effect on low-sugar candied kumquat. J. Food Prot. 1994;57:136-140.

    Not in our library10.4315/0362-028x-57.2.136

  147. 147.

    Kendra D.F., Hadwiger L.A. Relative effect of crab shell and fungal wall chitosan on Fusarium growth and induced resistance. Phytopathology. 1985;75:1303.

    Not in our library

  148. 148.

    Younes I., Sellimi S., Rinaudo M., Jellouli K., Nasri M. Influence of acetylation degree and molecular weight of homogeneous chitosans on antibacterial and antifungal activities. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2014;185:57-63.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2014.04.029

  149. 149.

    Atai Z., Atai M., Amini J., Salehi N. In vivo study of antifungal effects of low-molecular-weight chitosan against Candida albicans. J. Oral Sci. 2017;59:425-430.

    Not in our library10.2334/josnusd.16-0295

  150. 150.

    Palma-Guerrero J., Lopez-Jimenez J.A., Perez-Berna A.J., Huang I.C., Jansson H.B., Salinas J., Villalain J., Read N.D., Lopez-Llorca L.V. Membrane fluidity determines sensitivity of filamentous fungi to chitosan. Mol. Microbiol. 2010;75:1021-1032.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1365-2958.2009.07039.x

  151. 151.

    Kumariya R., Sood S.K., Rajput Y.S., Saini N., Garsa A.K. Increased membrane surface positive charge and altered membrane fluidity leads to cationic antimicrobial peptide resistance in Enterococcus faecalis. Biochim. Biophys. Aacta. 2015;1848:1367-1375.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.bbamem.2015.03.007

  152. 152.

    Ganan M., Lorentzen S.B., Aam B.B., Eijsink V.G.H., Gaustad P., Sorlie M. Antibiotic saving effect of combination therapy through synergistic interactions between well-characterized chito-oligosaccharides and commercial antifungals against medically relevant yeasts. PLoS ONE. 2019;14:e0227098.

    Not in our library10.1371/journal.pone.0227098

  153. 153.

    Work E. Biochemistry of the bacterial cell wall. Nature. 1957;179:841-847.

    Not in our library10.1038/179841a0

  154. 154.

    Vollmer W., Blanot D., de Pedro M.A. Peptidoglycan structure and architecture. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 2008;32:149-167.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1574-6976.2007.00094.x

  155. 155.

    Gow N.A.R., Latge J.P., Munro C.A. The Fungal cell wall: Structure, biosynthesis, and function. Microbiol. Spectr. 2017;5.

    Not in our library10.1128/microbiolspec.funk-0035-2016

  156. 156.

    Bajaj H., Acosta Gutierrez S., Bodrenko I., Malloci G., Scorciapino M.A., Winterhalter M., Ceccarelli M. Bacterial outer membrane porins as electrostatic nanosieves: Exploring transport rules of small polar molecules. ACS Nano. 2017;11:5465-5473.

    Not in our library10.1021/acsnano.6b08613

  157. 157.

    Gademann K. Controlling protein transport by small molecules. Curr. Drug Targets. 2011;12:1574-1580.

    Not in our library10.2174/138945011798109446

  158. 158.

    Burgstaller W. Transport of small lons and molecules through the plasma membrane of filamentous fungi. Crit. Rev. Microbiol. 1997;23:1-46.

    Not in our library10.3109/10408419709115129

  159. 159.

    Demchick P., Koch A.L. The permeability of the wall fabric of Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis. J. Bacteriol. 1996;178:768-773.

    Not in our library10.1128/jb.178.3.768-773.1996

  160. 160.

    Scherrer R., Louden L., Gerhardt P. Porosity of the yeast cell wall and membrane. J. Bacteriol. 1974;118:534-540.

    Not in our library10.1128/jb.118.2.534-540.1974

  161. 161.

    Turner R.D., Hurd A.F., Cadby A., Hobbs J.K., Foster S.J. Cell wall elongation mode in gram-negative bacteria is determined by peptidoglycan architecture. Nat. Commun. 2013;4:1-8.

    Not in our library10.1038/ncomms2503

  162. 162.

    Vollmer W., Holtje J.V. The architecture of the murein (peptidoglycan) in gram-negative bacteria: Vertical scaffold or horizontal layer(s)? J. Bacteriol. 2004;186:5978-5987.

    Not in our library10.1128/jb.186.18.5978-5987.2004

  163. 163.
    The Viscoelastic Properties of the Fungal Cell Wall Allow Traffic of AmBisome as Intact Liposome Vesicles · 2018
    No notice
  164. 164.
    Size and Shape of Protein Molecules at the Nanometer Level Determined by Sedimentation, Gel Filtration, and Electron Microscopy · 2009
    No notice
  165. 165.

    Dmitriev B.A., Toukach F.V., Holst O., Rietschel E.T., Ehlers S. Tertiary structure of Staphylococcus aureus cell wall murein. J. Bacteriol. 2004;186:7141-7148.

    Not in our library10.1128/jb.186.21.7141-7148.2004

  166. 166.

    Kulikov S.N., Tikhonov V.E., Bezrodnykh E.A., Lopatin S.A., Varlamov V.P. Comparative evaluation of antimicrobial activity of oligochitosans against Klebsiella pneumoniae. Bioorg. Khim. 2015;41:67-73.

    Not in our library10.1134/s1068162015010100

  167. 167.

    Denobel J.G., Dijkers C., Hooijberg E., Klis F.M. Increased cell-wall porosity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae after treatment with dithiothreitol or EDTA. J. Gen. Microbiol. 1989;135:2077-2084.

    Not in our library

  168. 168.

    Denobel J.G., Klis F.M., Priem J., Munnik T., Vandenende H. The gucanase-soluble mannoproteins limit cell-wall porosity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Yeast. 1990;6:491-499.

    Not in our library10.1002/yea.320060606

  169. 169.

    Stirke A., Celiesiute-Germaniene R., Zimkus A., Zurauskiene N., Simonis P., Dervinis A., Ramanavicius A., Balevicius S. The link between yeast cell wall porosity and plasma membrane permeability after PEF treatment. Sci. Rep. 2019;9:1-10.

    Not in our library10.1038/s41598-019-51184-y

  170. 170.

    Jung E.J., Youn D.K., Lee S.H., No H.K., Ha J.G., Prinyawiwatkul W. Antibacterial activity of chitosans with different degrees of deacetylation and viscosities. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2010;45:676-682.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1365-2621.2010.02186.x

  171. 171.

    Foster L.J.R., Ho S., Hook J., Basuki M., Marcal H. Chitosan as a biomaterial: Influence of degree of deacetylation on its physiochemical, material and biological properties. PLoS ONE. 2015;10:e0135153.

    Not in our library10.1371/journal.pone.0135153

  172. 172.

    Si Z., Hou Z., Vikhe Y.S., Thappeta K.R.V., Marimuthu K., De P.P., Ng O.T., Li P., Zhu Y., Pethe K., et al. Antimicrobial effect of a novel chitosan derivative and its synergistic effect with antibiotics. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces. 2021;13:3237-3245.

    Not in our library10.1021/acsami.0c20881

  173. 173.
    Chitosan Derivatives and Their Application in Biomedicine · 2020
    No notice
  174. 174.

    Satitsri S., Muanprasat C. Chitin and chitosan derivatives as biomaterial resources for biological and biomedical applications. Molecules. 2020;25:5961.

    Not in our library10.3390/molecules25245961

  175. 175.

    Piegat A., Zywicka A., Niemczyk A., Goszczynska A. Antibacterial activity of N,O-acylated chitosan derivative. Polymers. 2020;13:107.

    Not in our library10.3390/polym13010107

  176. 176.

    Verlee A., Mincke S., Stevens C.V. Recent developments in antibacterial and antifungal chitosan and its derivatives. Carbohydr. Polym. 2017;164:268-283.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.02.001

  177. 177.

    Zhong Z., Aotegen B., Xu H. The influence of the different inductivity of acetyl phenyl-thiosemicarbazone-chitosan on antimicrobial activities. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2011;48:713-719.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2011.01.029

  178. 178.

    Huang H.F., Peng C.F. Antibacterial and antifungal activity of alkylsulfonated chitosan. Biomark. Genom. Med. 2015;7:83-86.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.bgm.2014.09.001

  179. 179.

    Abdelwahab H.E., Hassan S.Y., Yacout G.A., Mostafa M.A., El Sadek M.M. Synthesis and biological evaluation of new imine- and amino-chitosan derivatives. Polymers. 2015;7:2690-2700.

    Not in our library10.3390/polym7121532

  180. 180.

    Kumar S., Koh J., Kim H., Gupta M.K., Dutta P.K. A new chitosan-thymine conjugate: Synthesis, characterization and biological activity. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2012;50:493-502.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2012.01.015

  181. 181.

    Rabea E.I., Badawy M.E.I., Steurbaut W., Stevens C.V. In vitro assessment of N-(benzyl)chitosan derivatives against some plant pathogenic bacteria and fungi. Eur. Polym. J. 2009;45:237-245.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2008.10.021

  182. 182.

    Rabea E.I., El Badawy M., Rogge T.M., Stevens C.V., Hofte M., Steurbaut W., Smagghe G. Insecticidal and fungicidal activity of new synthesized chitosan derivatives. Pest Manag. Sci. 2005;61:951-960.

    Not in our library10.1002/ps.1085

  183. 183.

    Patale R.L., Patravale V.B. O, N-carboxymethyl chitosan-zinc complex: A novel chitosan complex with enhanced antimicrobial activity. Carbohyd. Polym. 2011;85:105-110.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.carbpol.2011.02.001

  184. 184.

    Li Z., Yang F., Yang R. Synthesis and characterization of chitosan derivatives with dual-antibacterial functional groups. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2015;75:378-387.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2015.01.056

  185. 185.
    Transcriptional responses of Bacillus cereus towards challenges with the polysaccharide chitosan. · 2011
    Not checked
  186. 186.

    Zakrzewska A., Boorsma A., Brul S., Hellingwerf K.J., Klis F.M. Transcriptional response of Saccharomyces cerevisiae to the plasma membrane-perturbing compound chitosan. Eukaryot. Cell. 2005;4:703-715.

    Not in our library10.1128/ec.4.4.703-715.2005

  187. 187.

    Jaime M.D.L.A., Lopez-Llorca L.V., Conesa A., Lee A.Y., Proctor M., Heisler L.E., Gebbia M., Giaever G., Westwood J.T., Nislow C. Identification of yeast genes that confer resistance to chitosan oligosaccharide (COS) using chemogenomics. BMC Genom. 2012;13:1-26.

    Not in our library10.1186/1471-2164-13-267

  188. 188.

    Abarca M.L., Accensi F., Bragulat M.R., Cabanes F.J. Current importance of ochratoxin A-producing Aspergillus spp. J. Food Prot. 2001;64:903-906.

    Not in our library10.4315/0362-028x-64.6.903

  189. 189.

    Meng D., Garba B., Ren Y., Yao M., Xia X., Li M., Wang Y. Antifungal activity of chitosan against Aspergillus ochraceus and its possible mechanisms of action. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2020;158:1063-1070.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.04.213

  190. 190.

    Lopez-Moya F., Kowbel D., Nueda M.J., Palma-Guerrero J., Glass N.L., Lopez-Llorca L.V. Neurospora crassa transcriptomics reveals oxidative stress and plasma membrane homeostasis biology genes as key targets in response to chitosan. Mol. Biosyst. 2016;12:391-403.

    Not in our library10.1039/c5mb00649j

  191. 191.

    Suarez-Fernandez M., Sambles C., Lopez-Moya F., Nueda M.J., Studholme D.J., Lopez-Llorca L.V. Chitosan modulates Pochonia chlamydosporia gene expression during nematode egg parasitism. Environ. Microbiol. 2021.

    Not in our library10.1111/1462-2920.15408

  192. 192.

    Forghani F., Hajihassani A. Recent advances in the development of environmentally benign treatments to control root-knot nematodes. Front. Plant Sci. 2020;11:1125.

    Not in our library10.3389/fpls.2020.01125

  193. 193.

    Palma-Guerrero J., Jansson H.B., Salinas J., Lopez-Llorca L.V. Effect of chitosan on hyphal growth and spore germination of plant pathogenic and biocontrol fungi. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2008;104:541-553.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1365-2672.2007.03567.x

  194. 194.

    Escudero N., Lopez-Moya F., Ghahremani Z., Zavala-Gonzalez E.A., Alaguero-Cordovilla A., Ros-Ibanez C., Lacasa A., Sorribas F.J., Lopez-Llorca L.V. Chitosan increases tomato root colonization by Pochonia chlamydosporia and their combination reduces root-knot nematode damage. Front. Plant Sci. 2017;8:1415.

    Not in our library10.3389/fpls.2017.01415

  195. 195.

    Aranda-Martinez A., Lenfant N., Escudero N., Zavala-Gonzalez E.A., Henrissat B., Lopez-Llorca L.V. CAZyme content of Pochonia chlamydosporia reflects that chitin and chitosan modification are involved in nematode parasitism. Environ. Microbiol. 2016;18:4200-4215.

    Not in our library10.1111/1462-2920.13544

  196. 196.

    Palma-Guerrero J., Gomez-Vidal S., Tikhonov V.E., Salinas J., Jansson H.B., Lopez-Llorca L.V. Comparative analysis of extracellular proteins from Pochonia chlamydosporia grown with chitosan or chitin as main carbon and nitrogen sources. Enzym. Microb. Technol. 2010;46:568-574.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.enzmictec.2010.02.009

  197. 197.

    Achkar J.M., Fries B.C. Candida infections of the genitourinary tract. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2010;23:253-273.

    Not in our library10.1128/cmr.00076-09

  198. 198.

    Kullberg B.J., Arendrup M.C. Invasive candidiasis. N. Engl. J. Med. 2015;373:1445-1456.

    Not in our library10.1056/nejmra1315399

  199. 199.

    Charway G.N.A., Park S., Yu D., Je J.Y., Kim D.H., Jung W.K., Kim Y.M. In vitro antibacterial and synergistic effect of chitosan-phytochemical conjugates against antibiotic resistant fish pathogenic bacteria. Indian J. Microbiol. 2019;59:116-120.

    Not in our library10.1007/s12088-018-0750-0

  200. 200.

    Asghar M.A., Yousuf R.S., Shoaib M.H., Asghar M.A., Ansar S., Zehravi M., Rehman A.A. Synergistic combinations of chitosans and antibiotics in Staphylococcus aureus. Int. J. Nanomed. 2020;13:7841-7859.

    Not in our library10.2147/ijn.s274987

  201. 201.

    Erman A., Hergouth V.K., Blango M.G., Kos M.K., Mulvey M.A., Veranic P. Repeated treatments with chitosan in combination with antibiotics completely eradicate uropathogenic Escherichia coli from infected mouse urinary bladders. J. Infect. Dis. 2017;216:375-381.

    Not in our library10.1093/infdis/jix023

  202. 202.

    Yano K., Yamada T., Banno Y., Sekiya T., Nozawa Y. Modification of lipid composition in a dimorphic fungus, Candida albicans during the yeast cell to hypha transformation. Jpn. J. Med. Mycol. 1982;23:159-165.

    Not in our library10.3314/jjmm1960.23.159

  203. 203.

    Brasil M., Filgueiras A., Campos M., Neves M., Eugênio M., Sena L., Sant’Anna C., da Silva V., Diniz C., Sant’Ana A. Synergism in the antibacterial action of ternary mixtures involving silver nanoparticles, chitosan and antibiotics. J. Braz. Chem. Soc. 2018;29:2026-2033.

    Not in our library10.21577/0103-5053.20180077

  204. 204.

    Seyam S., Nordin N.A., Alfatama M. Recent progress of chitosan and chitosan derivatives-based nanoparticles: Pharmaceutical perspectives of oral insulin delivery. Pharmaceuticals. 2020;13:307.

    Not in our library10.3390/ph13100307

  205. 205.

    Naskar S., Sharma S., Kuotsu K. Chitosan-based nanoparticles: An overview of biomedical applications and its preparation. J. Drug Deliv. Sci. Technol. 2019;49:66-81.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.jddst.2018.10.022

  206. 206.
    Cationic chitosan-propolis nanoparticles alter the zeta potential of S. epidermidis, inhibit biofilm formation by modulating gene expression and exhibit synergism with antibiotics. · 2019
    Not checked
  207. 207.

    Zhang C., Hui D., Du C., Sun H., Peng W., Pu X., Li Z., Sun J., Zhou C. Preparation and application of chitosan biomaterials in dentistry. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2020.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.11.073

  208. 208.
    A Review of Biodegradable Natural Polymer-Based Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery Applications · 2020
    No notice
  209. 209.

    Saha P., Goyal A.K., Rath G. Formulation and evaluation of chitosan-based ampicillin trihydrate nanoparticles. Trop. J. Pharm. Res. 2010;9:483-488.

    Not in our library10.4314/tjpr.v9i5.61061

  210. 210.

    Barakat K.M., Gohar Y.M. Nanosilver-marine fungal chitosan as antibiotic synergizers against sepsis fish bacteria. Iran. J. Microbiol. 2015;7:324-332.

    Not in our library

  211. 211.

    Asghar M.A., Yousuf R.I., Shoaib M.H., Asghar M.A., Ansar S., Zehravi M., Abdul Rehman A. Synergistic nanocomposites of different antibiotics coupled with green synthesized chitosan-based silver nanoparticles: Characterization, antibacterial, in vivo toxicological and biodistribution studies. Int. J. Nanomed. 2020;15:7841-7859.

    Not in our library10.2147/ijn.s274987

  212. 212.

    Golmohamadi M., Ghorbani H.R., Otadi M. Synthesis of chitosan nanoparticles loaded with antibiotics as drug carriers and the study of antibacterial activity. J. Nanoanal. 2019;6:72-79.

    Not in our library

  213. 213.

    Tin S., Sakharkar K.R., Lim C.S., Sakharkar M.K. Activity of chitosans in combination with antibiotics in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Int. J. Biol. Sci. 2009;5:153-160.

    Not in our library10.7150/ijbs.5.153

  214. 214.

    Shahiwala A.F., Khan G.A., Bostanooei N.M. Efficacy of levofloxacin, chitosan and EDTA combination against methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus skin infections: In vitro and in vivo evaluations. Int. J. Clin. Med. Microbiol. 2017;2:119.

    Not in our library10.15344/2456-4028/2017/121

  215. 215.

    Smith J.K., Bumgardner J.D., Courtney H.S., Smeltzer M.S., Haggard W.O. Antibiotic-loaded chitosan film for infection prevention: A preliminary in vitro characterization. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. B Appl. Biomater. 2010;94:203-211.

    Not in our library10.1002/jbm.b.31642

  216. 216.

    Grimling B., Karolewicz B., Nawrot U., Wlodarczyk K., Gorniak A. Physicochemical and antifungal properties of clotrimazole in combination with high-molecular weight chitosan as a multifunctional excipient. Mar. Drugs. 2020;18:591.

    Not in our library10.3390/md18120591

  217. 217.

    Goller S., Turner N.J. The antimicrobial effectiveness and cytotoxicity of the antibiotic-loaded chitosan: ECM scaffolds. Appl. Sci. 2020;10:3446.

    Not in our library10.3390/app10103446

  218. 218.

    Noel S.P., Courtney H., Bumgardner J.D., Haggard W.O. Chitosan films: A potential local drug delivery system for antibiotics. Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res. 2008;466:1377-1382.

    Not in our library10.1007/s11999-008-0228-1

  219. 219.

    Nimal T.R., Mohandas A., Riju R.M., Arun S.M., Raja B., Rangasamy J. Ciprofloxacin- and fluconazole-containing fibrin-nanoparticle-incorporated chitosan bandages for the treatment of polymicrobial wound infections. ACS Appl. Bio Mater. 2018;2:243-254.

    Not in our library10.1021/acsabm.8b00585

  220. 220.

    Perinelli D.R., Campana R., Skouras A., Bonacucina G., Cespi M., Mastrotto F., Baffone W., Casettari L. Chitosan loaded into a hydrogel delivery system as a strategy to treat vaginal co-infection. Pharmaceutics. 2018;10:23.

    Not in our library10.3390/pharmaceutics10010023

  221. 221.

    Norowski P.A., Courtney H.S., Babu J., Haggard W.O., Bumgardner J.D. Chitosan coatings deliver antimicrobials from titanium implants: A preliminary study. Implant Dent. 2011;20:56-67.

    Not in our library10.1097/id.0b013e3182087ac4

  222. 222.

    Chen A., Chunlin H., Bao J., Zhou T., Dong Z. Antibiotic loaded chitosan bar. An in vitro, in vivo study of a possible treatment for osteomyelitis. Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res. 1998;366:239-247.

    Not in our library

  223. 223.
    “The Good, the Bad and the Ugly” of Chitosans · 2016
    No notice

Cited by papers we hold 3

Reads

Read by people on this page

None yet.

Checked or read by AI through naulon

None yet.

A person counts once a day per paper. We keep no cookie and no address: a reader is a hash that changes every day. Any month under five reads shows no number.

Are you an author?

Is this your paper?

Claim it to add your note and be paid when agents cite it. Free.