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Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Natural Products

Abdullatif Azab, Ahmad Nassar, Abed Azab

Molecules · 2016 · Review · CC BY

doi:10.3390/molecules21101321

Abstract

This article presents highlights of the published literature regarding the anti-inflammatory activities of natural products. Many review articles were published in this regard, however, most of them have presented this important issue from a regional, limited perspective. This paper summarizes the vast range of review and research articles that have reported on the anti-inflammatory effects of extracts and/or pure compounds derived from natural products. Moreover, this review pinpoints some interesting traditionally used medicinal plants that were not investigated yet.

Full text

From PubMed Central, U.S. National Library of Medicine, as current on Oct 18, 2026. Paragraph numbers are ours, so an answer can point at one.

1. Introduction

Inflammation usually occurs when infectious microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses or fungi invade the body, reside in particular tissues and/or circulate in the blood. Inflammation may also happen in response to processes such as tissue injury, cell death, cancer, ischemia and degeneration. Mostly, both the innate immune response as well as the adaptive immune response are involved in the formation of inflammation. The innate immune system is the foremost defense mechanism against invading microorganisms and cancer cells, involving the activity of various cells including macrophages, mast cells and dendritic cells. The adaptive immune systems involves the activity of more specialized cells such as B and T cells who are responsible for eradicating invading pathogens and cancer cells by producing specific receptors and antibodies.

Numerous inflammatory mediators are synthetized and secreted during inflammatory responses of different types. Inflammatory substances are usually divided to two main categories: pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators. Nevertheless, some mediators such as interleukin (IL)-12 possess both pro- and anti-inflammatory properties. Among the inflammatory mediators and cellular pathways that have been extensively studied in association with human pathological conditions are cytokines (e.g., interferons, interleukins and tumor necrosis factor α), chemokines (e.g., monocyte chemoattractant protein 1), eicosanoids (e.g., prostaglandins and leukotrienes) and the potent inflammation-modulating transcription factor nuclear factor κ B.

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α is an important pro-inflammatory cytokine which is secreted from various cells and exerts many cellular effects. TNF-α has been associated with multiple illness states in humans, including immune and inflammatory diseases, cancer, psychiatric disorders, among others. Another cytokine which mostly exerts a pro-inflammatory activity is IL-1α. It stimulates the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β and TNF-α. However, IL-1α has also been associated with anti-inflammatory activity. Similar to IL-1α, IL-6 usually acts as a pro-inflammatory cytokine but it also has some anti-inflammatory effects. As mentioned above, the IL-12 family of cytokines (including IL-12, IL-23, IL-27 and IL-35) possess both pro- and anti-inflammatory functions. On the other hand, IL-10 is a potent anti-inflammatory cytokine the activity of which impedes the action of many pro-inflammatory mediators. By weakening and controlling the inflammatory response IL-10 helps to maintain tissue homeostasis and attenuates the damage that may result from an exaggerated inflammatory response.

Prostaglandin (PG) E2 is probably the most studied PG in association with human physiological and pathological conditions. It has various physiological roles including regulation of normal body temperature, gastric mucosal integrity, renal blood flow and the function of female reproductive system. On the other hand, alterations in PGE2 activity are associated with pathological conditions such as inflammatory diseases, abnormal changes in body temperature, colorectal cancer, among others. The pathway of PGs synthesis starts with generation of arachidonic acid from cell membrane phospholipids by phospholipase A2 (PLA2). Then, arachidonic acid is converted to PGs by the enzyme cycloogygenase (COX). Among the three known COX isoforms (COX-1, COX-2 and COX-3), the inducible enzyme COX-2 is recognized as the most active during inflammatory processes. Leukotrienes (LTs) such as LTB4 were also linked to human illness states including inflammation, asthma and depression. LTs are produced by the enzyme 5-lipooxygenase (5-LOX). Another enzyme that is highly associated with inflammatory conditions is nitric oxide synthase (NOS) which produces nitric oxide (NO). Similar to COX-2, inducible NOS (iNOS) is the most pro-inflammatory NOS isoform.

The transcription factor nuclear factor κ B (NFκB) is a prominent regulator of immune and inflammatory responses and is highly involved in the pathophysiology of cancer. In mammals, the NFκB machinery comprises several members (e.g., p50 and p65) which regulate both physiological and pathological processes. At resting (un-stimulated) conditions NFκB resides in the cytoplasm. Following activation by various infectious/inflammatory/mitogenic stimuli, NFκB proteins translocate to the nucleus and induce transcription of inflammatory-associated genes.

The practice of using plants, their parts or extracts as anti-inflammatory compounds is known since antiquity. For example, concentrated, viscous aqueous extract of ripe carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) has been used for decades in Arab folk medicine, especially for treating mouth inflammations. The use of plants or plant products for medicinal purposes was mostly documented in books and, lately, in an enormous number of websites (where the reliability of some of these websites must be examined carefully). In the last decades, hundreds of research and review articles were published regarding the anti-inflammatory activities of plants. In this review we introduce some highlights of the literature published mainly during the last three decades, with a few references to earlier reports.

2. Review Articles of Natural Non-Plant Materials

As mentioned above, dozens of review articles have been published in the last few decades. Interestingly, a notable number of them were published by scholars from India, a country with a well rooted traditional plant medicine and a vast diversity of medicinal plants. Our summary here focuses on some of these reviews, but also includes articles from other parts of the world in order to provide a wider view. This part includes review articles which summarize the anti-inflammatory activities of non-plant natural products which exist in mushrooms and honey. Mushrooms and honey traditional therapies are very well established in most cultures. Moreover, mushrooms/honey mixtures with other plant materials (including various extracts) were used in folk medicines since ancient times.

One of the early articles that introduced the anti-inflammatory activities of mushrooms and some of their compounds was published by Lindequist et al. in 2005. Four different mushroom species were reviewed: Phellinus linteus that is used in traditional medicines of cultures of East Asia, Ganoderma lucidum (Lingzhi mushroom) which also has a long history of medicinal use in China, the widespread Pleurotus pulmonarius (subtropical forests) and the edible Grifola frondosa. Some biologically active compounds were extracted from each of these mushrooms. For example, eight different triterpenoid ganoderic acids were isolated from G. lucidum, but only four of them exerted anti-inflammatory activity (Figure 1A shows one of these compounds). From G. frondosa, an ergosterol oxidation product active as an anti-inflammatory agent was isolated (Figure 1B).

An excellent, comprehensive review of anti-inflammatory activities of mushrooms was published by Elsayed and his colleagues in 2014. This article provides detailed, systematic information about a large number of mushroom species, many biologically active compounds, and importantly, suggested mechanisms of action. Among the most established anti-inflammatory effects of mushrooms that were reported in this article were: reduction of IL-1β, IL-6, LTs, PGs and TNF-α levels, and, inhibition of COX-2, iNOS and NFκB activity. The authors state that terpenoids are the largest group of anti-inflammatory compounds in mushrooms and presented some seven-membered, structurally interesting examples of these compounds (such as cyathins and related compounds, Figure 2).

In their article, Elsayed et al. addressed a study by Ngai et al. which reported on the isolation of a 15 amino acids peptide from Agrocybe cylindrace which the authors named “agrocybin”. Ngai et al. reported that “agrocybin” exerted antifungal but not anti-inflammatory activity. However, for the sake of accuracy, it is important to mention that the name agrocybin also refers to a different compound (not a peptide), reported by Rosa and his colleagues who isolated it from another Agrocybe species, A. perfecta. To the best of our knowledge, this compound also named agrocybin is a polyeyne amide, as shown in Figure 3.

The second source of non-plant, natural material with anti-inflammatory activity is honey. Since it is one of the most ancient nutritious foods and was mentioned in most holy religious texts, honey has been used for medicinal purposes since antiquity. Numerous review articles were published about the anti-inflammatory properties of honey. Almost all of these reviews focus on clinical evidence for the anti-inflammatory activity of honey but lack any reporting of active compounds. Moreover, most of the articles indicate that the precise mechanism underlying the anti-inflammatory activity of honey is unknown, although some present proposed mechanisms. Mostly, honey was reported to have anti-inflammatory effects (such as reduction of TNF-α levels, attenuation of COX-2 activity, and inhibition of NFκB translocation to the nucleus) but pro-inflammatory actions were also indicated (e.g., elevation of NO production).

3. Review Articles on Natural Plant Materials

Among the different biological activities of natural plant products that have been published until now, anti-inflammation is one of the most reported effects. Table 1 summarizes selected review articles which report on the anti-inflammatory properties of natural plant materials.

4. Active Anti-Inflammatory Plant Extracts, Essential Oils, Juices and Powders

Extracting plant materials is the first major step towards testing the biological activities of this plant. In doing so, there are many advantages and some disadvantages, comparing with isolation of pure active compounds. When a whole extract is used, there is a good chance for synergism between active components that might be lost when each of these components is isolated. Such synergism was discovered in several medicinal tests, including those for anti-inflammatory activity. On the contrary, the mixture of different compounds together may also lead to inhibitory effects, namely, that one component may reduce the biological activity of the other. In line with this assumption, some studies have showed that the anti-inflammatory activity of pure compounds (such as amentoflavone, pseudohypericin, and hyperforin, isolated from extracts of Hypericum perforatum) is higher than that of the extracts. In addition to plant extracts, essential oils, plant juices and plant powders are also widely used for medicinal purposes.

Solvent selection for extraction of plant materials is one of the most important factors in determining the potential activity of the extract, since the solvent polarity determines which compounds will be extracted and which will not. For example, it is unlikely that water (very polar) will extract the active anti-inflammatory compound monoterpene 1,8-cineole (Achillea millefolium) but will easily extract protocatechuic acid (Boswellia dalzielii), and vice versa for n-hexane (non-polar). Thus, in many cases of newly studied plants, various extracts are prepared with solvents that have a wide polarity range. Table 2 summarizes selected research articles which have reported on the anti-inflammatory activity of plant extracts.

There are several worth mentioning points regarding the information presented in Table 2. The plant Corchorus olitorius, known as Mulukhiyah in the Middle East, is one of the most important edible plants in this region. Despite this fact there are relatively very few reported studies regarding the medicinal properties of this plant. A study by Zakaria et al. found that it exerted potent anti-inflammatory and antipyretic effects (Table 2). The title of the article by Islam et al. states that “ethanol” was used to prepare extracts from mango (Mangifera indica) leaves, however, in the “Materials and Methods” section only methanol was mentioned as the extracting solvent. In the study by Li et al. different extracts were prepared from hawthorn fruit (Crataegus pinnatifida Bunge var. typica Schneider). A first extract was prepared using 70% methanol in water. Then, this extract was concentrated and extracted again with each of the following solvents: water, ethyl acetate, n-butanol and dichloromethane. Only the aqueous extract showed a significant anti-inflammatory activity. Of note, the most abundant hawthorn species in eastern Mediterranean region—Crataegus aronia—was never reported, although many of its medicinal activities are well acknowledged. A study by Abu-Gharbieh et al. examined the anti-inflammatory effect of the aqueous extract of Micromeria fruticosa in mice. They reported a prominent reduction in carrageenan-induced paw edema. Moreover, pretreatment with the extract led to a significant decrease in gastric mucosal lesions induced by high-dose indomethacin, attesting for a gastro-protective effect of the extract.

Interestingly, M. fruticosa is one of the most useful herbs in western Asia, especially in the Middle East. Nevertheless, the specific compound(s) that is/are responsible for its anti-inflammatory activity is/are still unknown. Furthermore, M. sylvestris L. is an extensively eaten and widely used plant for medicinal purposes in the east Mediterranean region. A similar Micromeria species is M. nicaeenis. The chemical composition of this plant is unknown and, to the best of our knowledge, its anti-inflammatory activity has not been studied yet.

A study by Walker et al. examined the anti-inflammatory properties of Eriodictyon angustifolium (a North American shrub) and its major active compounds on LPS-induced inflammation in human gingival fibroblasts. The dried leaves of the plant were extracted and the crude extracts were analyzed. Eight active compounds were identified as shown in Figure 4. Some of the extracts showed a profound anti-inflammatory activity. As mentioned above, aqueous extract of ripe carob (Ceratonia siliqua) is among the most used remedies in Arab traditional medicine. A recent study by Lachkar et al. clearly demonstrated that carob exerts prominent anti-inflammatory properties which are comparable to those of the potent anti-inflammatory drug indomethacin. Ripe pods of carob provide food for humans and animals. Ripe pods are traditionally extracted with boiling water after being crushed. The filtered extract is evaporated to viscous, sweet paste. In addition to its nutritional value, this paste has traditional, proven anti-inflammatory qualities, especially regarding mouth inflammations. Thus, it is strange that these qualities are just being studied in the last few years.

5. Selected Reports of Single Natural Products with Anti-Inflammatory Activities

As indicated in the previous section, isolation and testing of a single natural product for biological activities has both advantages and disadvantages. Two major advantages that were not mentioned are: (i) Testing a single active compound enables a thorough elucidation and better understanding of its mechanism of action; and (ii) if a single compound proves efficacious, it is possible to perform slight modifications on its structure or produce synthetic analogues in order to obtain more potent/efficacious compounds. In this regard, half of the the 2015 Nobel Prize in medicine was awarded to Campbell and Omura mainly for the synthesis and discovery of the anti-malarial compound ivermectin, which is the result of a very slight modification (a dihydro derivative) of the natural product avermectin.

Table 3 summarizes selected reports of anti-inflammatory activity of pure compounds that have been thoroughly investigated so far. An early study by Gupta et al. reported that ursolic acid and cucurbitacin B did not exhibit anti-inflammatory properties. However, the findings concerning ursolic acid are contradicted by later reports.

Many studies have presented ursolic acid as one of the major compounds responsible for the anti-inflammatory activities of various plants. Moreover, as seen in Figure 5, oleanolic acid (which possesses anti-inflammatory effects, Table 3) and ursolic acid are structural isomers with very small difference in their structures. As for cucurbitacin B, similarly, the findings of Gupta et al. contradict later reports which clearly indicated that the anti-inflammatory activity of Ecballium elaterium (squirting cucumber) and Cucurbita andreana is mainly due to this compound.

In a study by Guardia et al. three plant flavonoids—rutin, quercetin and hesperidin—were found to have anti-inflammatory effects. Quercetin is an abundant polyphenol in the plant kingdom. Its structure (with other compounds) is shown in Figure 6. Onions (Allium cepa) contain a high concentration of quercetin and studies confirmed the anti-inflammatory activities of onion juice and extracts. Abutilon indicum also contains high amounts of quercetin and has significant anti-inflammatory activity. Furthermore, garlic contains large amounts of allicin (the structure of which is shown in Figure 6) which exerts potent anti-inflammatory effects.

As for the vast majority of natural products, even short term heating of garlic reduces the anti-inflammatory activity of allicin. Another potent anti-inflammatory compound is (−)-myrtenol (, Table 3). As seen in Figure 6, it is essentially a mono-oxidized isomer of (−)-α-pinene. Interestingly, the anti-inflammatory activity of (−)-α-pinene is negligible compared with (+)-α-pinene, while the anti-inflammatory activity of (+)-myrtenol was never reported. This “enantiomeric selectivity” does not always occur as reported for equal anti-inflammatory activities of the enantiomers shikonin and alkannin found in Alkanna tinctoria. A study by Thao et al. examined the anti-inflammatory properties of different terpenes and polyphenols. Twenty six compounds, some of which were novel, were isolated and tested in this research. The most active anti-inflammatory compound was a derivative of juglone (5-hydroxy-7-methyl-2-methoxy-1,4-naphthaquinone). These results are consistent with previous reports regarding the anti-inflammatory activity of juglone.

6. Concluding Remarks

The data summarized in this article suggest that many compounds derived from natural products exert potent anti-inflammatory properties. Although the drugability of pure anti-inflammatory compounds extracted from natural products seems a complicated task, extracts and pure compounds of natural products may still open new venues for therapeutic interventions. Pharmaceutical companies will probably not express high interest and invest hugely in compounds that will be difficult to patent. Nevertheless, if proven efficacious and safe, the use of natural products-derived compounds should be advocated by policy makers and health authorities. Regular consumption of such products may become a successful and safe strategy to treat chronic inflammatory conditions.

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    Not in our library10.4103/0973-7847.91102

  53. 53.

    Lucas L., Russell A., Keast R. Molecular mechanisms of inflammation. Anti-inflammatory benefits of virgin olive oil and the phenolic compound oleocanthal. Curr. Pharm. Des. 2011;17:754-768.

    Not in our library10.2174/138161211795428911

  54. 54.

    Sengupta R., Sheorey S.D., Hinge M.A. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory plants: an updated review. Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Rev. Res. 2012;12:114-119.

    Not in our library

  55. 55.

    Shilpi J.A., Islam M.E., Billah M., Islam K.M.D., Sabrin F., Uddin S.J., Nahar L., Sarker S.D. Antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic activity of mangrove plants: A mini review. Adv. Pharmacol. Sci. 2012;576086.

    Not in our library10.1155/2012/576086

  56. 56.

    Kumar S., Bajwa B.S., Kuldeep S., Kalia A.N. Anti-inflammatory activity of herbal plants: A review. Int. J. Adv. Pharm. Biol. Chem. 2013;2:272-281.

    Not in our library

  57. 57.

    Wei W.C., Sung P.J., Duh C.Y., Chen B.W., Sheu J.H., Yang N.S. Anti-inflammatory activities of natural products isolated from soft corals of Taiwan between 2008 and 2012. Mar. Drugs. 2013;11:4083-4126.

    Not in our library10.3390/md11104083

  58. 58.
    Marine algal natural products with anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer properties · 2013
    No notice
  59. 59.

    Bajpai S., Pathak R., Hussain T. Anti-inflammatory activity of ethnobotanical plants used as traditional medicine: A review. Res. Rev. J. Bot.Sci. 2014;3:8-18.

    Not in our library

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    Plant-Derived Anti-Inflammatory Compounds: Hopes and Disappointments regarding the Translation of Preclinical Knowledge into Clinical Progress · 2014
    No notice
  61. 61.

    Schäfer G., Kaschula C.H. The immunomodulation and anti-Inflammatory effects of garlic organosulfur compounds in cancer chemoprevention. Anticancer Agents Med. Chem. 2014;14:233-240.

    Not in our library10.2174/18715206113136660370

  62. 62.
    Immunomodulation and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Garlic Compounds · 2015
    No notice
  63. 63.

    Bhagyasri Y., Lavakumar V., Divya Sree M.S., Ashok Kumar C.K. An overview on anti-inflammatory activity of Indian herbal plants. Int. J. Res. Pharm. Nano Sci. 2015;4:1-9.

    Not in our library

  64. 64.

    González Y., Torres-Mendoza D., Jones G.E., Fernandez P.L. Marine diterpenoids a potential anti-inflammatory agents. Mediators Inflamm. 2015;263543.

    Not in our library10.1155/2015/263543

  65. 65.

    Parhiz H., Roohbakhsh A., Soltani F., Ramin Rezaee R., Iranshahi M. Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of the citrus flavonoids hesperidin and hesperetin: An updated review of their molecular mechanisms and experimental models. Phytother. Res. 2015;29:323-331.

    Not in our library10.1002/ptr.5256

  66. 66.

    Karunaweera1 N., Raju R., Gyengesi E., Münch G. Plant polyphenols as inhibitors of NF-kB induced cytokine production—A potential anti-inflammatory treatment for Alzheimer’s disease? Front. Mol. Neurosci. 2015;8.

    Not in our library10.3389/fnmol.2015.00024

  67. 67.

    Cheung R.C.F., Ng T.B., Wong J.H., Chen Y., Chan W.Y. Marine natural products with anti-inflammatory activity. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2016;100:1645-1666.

    Not in our library10.1007/s00253-015-7244-3

  68. 68.

    Maione F., Russo R., Khan H., Mascolo N. Medicinal plants with anti-inflammatory activities. Nat. Prod. Res. 2016;30:1343-1353.

    Not in our library10.1080/14786419.2015.1062761

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    Stohs S.J., Bagchi D. Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and chemoprotective properties of Acacia catechu heartwood extracts. Phytother. Res. 2015;29:818-824.

    Not in our library10.1002/ptr.5335

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    Mascolo N., Autore G., Capasso F., Menghini A., Fasulo M.P. Biological screening of Italian medicinal plants for anti-inflammatory activity. Phytother. Res. 1987;1:28-31.

    Not in our library10.1002/ptr.2650010107

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    Badilla B., Mora G., Poveda L.J. Anti-inflammatory activity of aqueous extracts of five Costa Rican medicinal plants in Sprague-Dawley rats. Rev. Siol. Trop. 1999;47:723-727.

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    Chan K., Islam M.W., Kamil M., Radhakrishnan R., Zakaria M.N.M., Habibullah M., Attas A. The analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of Portulaca oleracea L. subsp. Sativa (Haw.) Celak. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2000;73:445-451.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0378-8741(00)00318-4

  73. 73.

    Kim Y.O., Lee S.W., Na S.W., Park H.R., Son E.S. Anti-inflammatory effects of Portulaca oleracea L. on the LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cells. J. Med. Plants Res. 2015;9:407-411.

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    Agyare C., Baiden E., Apenteng J.A., Boakye Y.D., Adu-Amoah L. Anti-infective and anti-inflammatory properties of Portulaca oleracea L. Donn. J. Med. Plnt. Res. 2015;2:2041-2064.

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    Baricevic D., Sosa S., Della Loggia R., Tubaro A., Simonovska B., Krasna A., Zupancic A. Topical anti-inflammatory activity of Salvia officinalis L. leaves: the relevance of ursolic acid. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2001;75:125-132.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0378-8741(00)00396-2

  76. 76.

    Qnais E.Y., Abu-Dieyeh M., Abdulla F.A., Abdalla S.S. The antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of Salvia officinalis leaf aqueous and butanol extracts. Pharm. Biol. 2010;48:1149-1156.

    Not in our library10.3109/13880200903530763

  77. 77.

    Boukhary R., Raafat K., Ghoneim A.I., Aboul-Ela M., El-Lakany A. Anti-Inflammatory and antioxidant activities of Salvia fruticosa: An HPLC determination of phenolic contents. Evid. Based Complement. Altern. Med. 2016;2016:7178105.

    Not in our library10.1155/2016/7178105

  78. 78.

    Owoyele B.V., Adebukola O.M., Funmilayo A.A., Soladoye A.O. Anti-inflammatory activities of ethanolic extract of Carica papaya leaves. Inflammopharmacology. 2008;16:168-173.

    Not in our library10.1007/s10787-008-7008-0

  79. 79.

    Choudhary M.I., Jalil A.S., Nawaz S.A., Khan K.M., Tareen R.B., Atta-ur-Rahman. Antiinflammatory and lipoxygenase inhibitory compounds from Vitex agnus-castus. Phytother. Res. 2009;23:1336-1339.

    Not in our library10.1002/ptr.2639

  80. 80.

    Loizzo M.R., Menichini F., Conforti F., Tundis R., Bonesi M., Saab A.M., Statti G.A., de Cindio B., Houghton P.J., Menichini F., et al. Chemical analysis, antioxidant, antiinflammatory and anticholinesterase activities of Origanum ehrenbergii Boiss and Origanum syriacum L. essential oils. Food Chem. 2009;117:174-180.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.03.095

  81. 81.

    Jaijoy K., Soonthornchareonnon N., Panthong A., Sireeratawong S. Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of the water extract from the fruit of Phyllanthus emblica Linn. Int. J. Appl. Res. Nat. Prod. 2010;3:28-35.

    Not in our library

  82. 82.

    Huang Y.S., Ho S.C. Polymethoxy flavones are responsible for the anti-inflammatory activity of citrus fruit peel. Food Chem. 2010;119:868-873.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.09.092

  83. 83.

    Rahman M., Chowdhury J.A., Habib R., Saha B.K., Salauddin A.D. Islam, M.K. Anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic and analgesic activity of the alcoholic extract of the plant Urginea indica Kunth. Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Res. 2011;2:2915-2919.

    Not in our library

  84. 84.
    Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of selected Chinese medicinal plants and their relation with antioxidant content · 2012
    No notice
  85. 85.

    Diaz P., Jeong S.C., Lee S., Khoo C., Koyyalamudi S.R. Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of selected medicinal plants and fungi containing phenolic and flavonoid compounds. Chin. Med. 2012;7.

    Not in our library10.1186/1749-8546-7-26

  86. 86.

    Yasmeen N., Sujatha K. Evaluation of anti-inflammatory activity of ethanolic whole plant extract of Desmodium gangeticum L. Int. J. Phytomed. 2013;5:347-349.

    Not in our library

  87. 87.

    Saravana K.K., Nagaveni P., Anitha K., Mahaboob S.T.M. Evaluation of anti-inflammatory activity on Vitex negundo Linn. J. Drug Deliv. Ther. 2013;3:41-44.

    Not in our library

  88. 88.

    Komalavalli K., Nithya P.Y., Sabapathy M., Mohan V.R. Antiinflammatory activity of whole plant of Sonerila tinnevelliensis Fischer (Melastomataceae). Int. J. Pharmacol. Res. 2013;3:74-76.

    Not in our library

  89. 89.

    Yousuf P.H., Noba N.Y., Shohel M., Bhattacherjee R., Das B.K. Analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic effect of Mentha spicata (Spearmint). Br. J. Pharm. Res. 2013;3:854-864.

    Not in our library10.9734/bjpr/2013/4640

  90. 90.

    Prudente A.S., Loddi A.M.V., Duarte M.R., Santos A.R.S., Pochapski M.T., Pizzolatti M.G., Hayashi S.S., Campos F.R., Pontarolo R., Fabio A., et al. Pre-clinical anti-inflammatory aspects of a cuisine and medicinal millennial herb: Malva sylvestris L. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2013;58:324-331.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.fct.2013.04.042

  91. 91.

    Fezai M., Senovilla L., Jemaà M., Ben-Attia M. Analgesic, anti-Inflammatory and anticancer activities of extra virgin olive oil. J. Lipids. 2013;129736.

    Not in our library10.1155/2013/129736

  92. 92.

    Rosillo M.A., Alcaraz M.J., Sánchez-Hidalgo M., Fernández-Bolaños J.G., Alarcón-de-la-Lastra C., Ferrándiz M.L. Anti-inflammatory and joint protective effects of extra-virgin olive-oil polyphenol extract in experimental arthritis. J. Nutr. Biochem. 2014;25:1275-1281.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.jnutbio.2014.07.006

  93. 93.
    Malva sylvestris Inhibits Inflammatory Response in Oral Human Cells. An In Vitro Infection Model. · 2015
    Not checked
  94. 94.

    Kaladhar D.S.V.G.K., Swathi S.K., Varahalarao V., Nagendra S.Y. Evaluation of anti-inflammatory and anti-proliferative activity of Abutilon indicum L. plant ethanolic leaf extract on lung cancer cell line A549 for system network studies. J. Cancer Sci. Ther. 2014;6:188-194.

    Not in our library

  95. 95.
    Potential anti-inflammatory effect of lemon and hot pepper extracts on adjuvant-induced arthritis in mice · 2014
    Not checked
  96. 96.

    Adebayo S.A., Dzoyem J.P., Shai L.J., Eloff J.N. The anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity of 25 plant species used traditionally to treat pain in southern African. BMC Complement. Altern. Med. 2015;15.

    Not in our library10.1186/s12906-015-0669-5

  97. 97.

    Serafini M.R., de Oliveira Barreto E., de Almeida Brito F., Almeida dos Santos J.P., dos Santos Lima B., Banderó Walker C.I., Amaral da Silva F., Quintans-Junior L.J., Gelain D.P., de Souza Araújo A.A. Anti-inflammatory property and redox profile of the leaves extract from Morinda citrifolia L. J. Med. Plants Res. 2015;9:693-701.

    Not in our library

  98. 98.

    Da Costa G.A., Morais M.G., Saldanha A.A., Assis Silva I.C., Aleixo A.A., Ferreira J.M., Soares A.C., Duarte-Almeida J.M., Lima L.A. Antioxidant, antibacterial, cytotoxic, and anti-inflammatory potential of the leaves of Solanum lycocarpum A. St. Hil. (Solanaceae). Evid. Based Complement. Altern. Med. 2015;2015:315987.

    Not in our library10.1155/2015/315987

  99. 99.

    Gupta A., Chaphalkar S.R. Terpenoids from three medicinal plants and their potential anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive activity on human whole blood and peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Asian J. Ethnopharmacol. Med. Foods. 2016;2:13-17.

    Not in our library

  100. 100.

    Medicherla K., Ketkar A., Sahu B.D., Sudhakar G., Sistla R. Rosmarinus officinalis L. extract ameliorates intestinal inflammation through MAPKs/NF-κB signaling in a murine model of acute experimental colitis. Food Funct. 2016;7:3233-3243.

    Not in our library10.1039/c6fo00244g

  101. 101.

    Walker J., Reichelt K.V., Obst K., Widder S., Hans J., Krammer G.E., Ley J.P., Somoza V. Identification of an anti-inflammatory potential of Eriodictyon angustifolium compounds in human gingival fibroblasts. Food Funct. 2016;7:3046-3055.

    Not in our library10.1039/c6fo00482b

  102. 102.

    Ghate N.B., Das A., Chaudhuri D., Panja S., Mandal N. Sundew plant, a potential source of anti-inflammatory agents, selectively induces G2/M arrest and apoptosis in MCF-7 cells through upregulation of p53 and Bax/Bcl-2 ratio. Cell Death Discov. 2016;2.

    Not in our library10.1038/cddiscovery.2015.62

  103. 103.

    Lachkar N., Al-Sobarry M., El Hajaji H., Lamkinsi T., Lachkar M., Cherrah Y., Alaoui K. Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effect of Ceratonia siliqua L. methanol barks extract. J. Chem. Pharm. Res. 2016;8:202-210.

    Not in our library

  104. 104.

    Campana P.R., Mansur D.S., Gusman G.S., Ferreira D., Teixeira M.M., Braga F.C. Anti-TNF-α activity of Brazilian medicinal plants and compounds from Ouratea semiserrata. Phytother. Res. 2015;29:1509-1515.

    Not in our library10.1002/ptr.5401

  105. 105.

    Riedel R., Marrassini C., Anesini C., Gorzalczany S. Anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activity of Urera aurantiaca. Phytother. Res. 2015;29:59-66.

    Not in our library10.1002/ptr.5226

  106. 106.

    Uto T., Tung N.H., Taniyama R., Miyanowaki T., Morinaga O., Shoyama Y. Anti-inflammatory activity of constituents isolated from aerial part of Angelica acutiloba kitagawa. Phytother. Res. 2015;29:1956-1963.

    Not in our library10.1002/ptr.5490

  107. 107.

    Iii Colado-Velázquez J., Mailloux-Salinas P., Medina-Contreras J., Cruz-Robles D., Bravo G. Effect of Serenoa repens on oxidative stress, inflammatory and growth factors in obese Wistar rats with benign prostatic hyperplasia. Phytother. Res. 2015;29:1525-1531.

    Not in our library10.1002/ptr.5406

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    Kumar R., Gupta Y.K., Singh S., Arunraja S. Picrorhiza kurroa inhibits experimental arthritis through inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines, angiogenesis and MMPs. Phytother. Res. 2016;30:112-119.

    Not in our library10.1002/ptr.5509

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    Rtibi K., Selmi S., Jabri M.A., Mamadou G., Limas-Nzouzi N., Sebai H., El-Benna J., Marzouki L., Eto B., Amri M. Effects of aqueous extracts from Ceratonia siliqua L. pods on small intestinal motility in rats and jejunal permeability in mice. RSC Adv. 2016;6:44345-44353.

    Not in our library10.1039/c6ra03457h

  110. 110.

    Rtibi K., Jabri M.A., Selmi S., Sebai H., Amri M., El-Benna J., Marzouki L. Ceratonia siliqua leaves exert a strong ROS scavenging effect in human neutrophils, inhibit myeloperoxydase in vitro and protect against intestinal fluid and electrolytes secretion in rats. RSC Adv. 2016;6:65483-65493.

    Not in our library10.1039/c6ra11297h

  111. 111.

    Campbell W.C., Fisher M.H., Stapley E.O., Albers-Schonberg G., Jacob T.A. Ivermectin: A potent new antiparasitic agent. Science. 1983;221:823-828.

    Not in our library10.1126/science.6308762

  112. 112.

    Gupta M.B., Bhalla T.N., Gupta G.P., Mitra C.R., Bhargava K.P. Anti-inflammatory activity of natural products (I) Triterpenoids. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 1969;6:67-70.

    Not in our library10.1016/0014-2999(69)90067-3

  113. 113.

    Guardia T., Rotelli A.E., Juarez A.O., Pelzer L.E. Anti-inflammatory properties of plant flavonoids. Effects of rutin, quercetin and hesperidin on adjuvant arthritis in rat. Il Farmaco. 2001;56:683-687.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0014-827x(01)01111-9

  114. 114.

    Bose S., Laha B., Banerjee S. Anti-inflammatory activity of isolated allicin from garlic with post-acoustic waves and microwave radiation. J. Adv. Pharm. Edu. Res. 2013;3:512-515.

    Not in our library

  115. 115.

    Silva R.O., Salvadori M.S., Sousa F.B.M., Santos M.S., Carvalho N.S., Sousa D.P., Gomes B.S., Oliveira F.A., Barbosa A.L.R., Freitas R.M., et al. Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive effects of myrtenol, a plant-derived monoterpene alcohol, in mice. Flavour Fragr. J. 2014;29:184-192.

    Not in our library10.1002/ffj.3195

  116. 116.

    Thao N.P., Luyen B.T.T., Koo J.E., Kim S., Koh Y.S., Thanh N.V., Cuong N.X., Kiem P.V., Minh C.V., Kim H.Y. In vitro anti-inflammatory components isolated from the carnivorous plant Nepenthes mirabilis (Lour.) Rafarin. Pharm. Biol. 2016;54:588-594.

    Not in our library10.3109/13880209.2015.1067234

  117. 117.

    Navarrete S., Alarcón M., Palomo I. Aqueous extract of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) and ferulic acid reduce the expression of TNF-α and IL-1β in LPS-activated macrophages. Molecules. 2015;20:15319-15329.

    Not in our library10.3390/molecules200815319

  118. 118.

    Lee K., Kwak J.H., Pyo S. Inhibition of LPS-induced inflammatory mediators by 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid in macrophages through suppression of PI3K/NF-κB signaling pathways. Food Funct. 2016;7:3073-3082.

    Not in our library10.1039/c6fo00187d

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    Aquino R., De Feo V., De Simone F., Pizza C., Cirino C. Plant metabolites. New compounds and antiinflammatory activity of Uncaria tomentosa. J. Nat. Prod. 1991;54:453-459.

    Not in our library10.1021/np50074a016

  120. 120.
    Potent Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Ursolic Acid, a Triterpenoid Antioxidant, Is Mediated through Suppression of NF-κB, AP-1 and NF-AT · 2012
    No notice
  121. 121.

    Yesilada E., Tanaka S., Sezik E., Tabata M. Isolation of an anti-inflammatory principle from the juice of Ecballium elaterium. J. Nat. Prod. 1988;51:504-508.

    Not in our library10.1021/np50057a008

  122. 122.

    Yesilada E., Tanaka S., Tabata M., Sezik E. Antiinflammatory effects of the fruit juice of Ecballium elaterium on edemas in mice. Phytother. Res. 1989;3:75-76.

    Not in our library10.1002/ptr.2650030210

  123. 123.

    Jayaprakasam B., Seeram N.P., Nair M.G. Anticancer and antiinflammatory activities of cucurbitacins from Cucurbita andreana. Cancer Lett. 2003;189:11-16.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0304-3835(02)00497-4

  124. 124.

    Oliveira T.T., Campos K.M., Cerqueira-Lima A.T., Brasil Carneiro T.C., da Silva Velozo E., Alexandrino Ribeiro Melo I.C., Abrantes Figueiredo E., de Jesus Oliveira E., Silva Amorim de Vasconcelos D.F., Pontes-de-Carvalho L.C., et al. Potential therapeutic effect of Allium cepa L. and quercetin in a murine model of Blomia Tropicalis induced asthma. DARU J. Pharm. Sci. 2015;23.

    Not in our library10.1186/s40199-015-0098-5

  125. 125.

    Shin J.H., Ryu J.H., Kang M.J., Hwang C.R., Han J., Kang D. Short-term heating reduces the anti-inflammatory effects of fresh raw garlic extracts on the LPS-induced production of NO and pro-inflammatory cytokines by downregulating allicin activity in RAW 264.7 macrophages. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2013;58:545-551.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.fct.2013.04.002

  126. 126.

    Rufino A.T., Ribeiro M., Judas F., Salgueiro L., Lopes M.C., Cavaleiro C., Mendes A.F. Anti-inflammatory and chondroprotective activity of (+)-α-pinene: structural and enantiomeric selectivity. J. Nat. Prod. 2014;77:264-269.

    Not in our library10.1021/np400828x

  127. 127.

    Tanaka S., Tajima M., Tsukada M., Tabata M. A comparative study of anti-inflammatory activities of the enantiomers, shikonin and alkannin. J. Nat. Prod. 1986;49:466-469.

    Not in our library10.1021/np50045a014

  128. 128.

    Peng X., Nie Y., Wu J., Huang Q., Cheng Y. Juglone prevents metabolic endotoxemia-induced hepatitis and neuroinflammation via suppressing TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway in high-fat diet rats. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2015;462:245-250.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.bbrc.2015.04.124

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