Skip to content
naulon
Get started

No retraction, correction or concern found when last checked on Oct 24, 2026.

Essential Oils as Antiviral Agents, Potential of Essential Oils to Treat SARS-CoV-2 Infection: An In-Silico Investigation

Joyce Kelly R. da Silva, Pablo Luis Baia Figueiredo, Kendall G. Byler and 1 more

International Journal of Molecular Sciences · 2020 · CC BY

doi:10.3390/ijms21103426

Abstract

Essential oils have shown promise as antiviral agents against several pathogenic viruses. In this work we hypothesized that essential oil components may interact with key protein targets of the 2019 severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). A molecular docking analysis was carried out using 171 essential oil components with SARS-CoV-2 main protease (SARS-CoV-2 Mpro), SARS-CoV-2 endoribonucleoase (SARS-CoV-2 Nsp15/NendoU), SARS-CoV-2 ADP-ribose-1″-phosphatase (SARS-CoV-2 ADRP), SARS-CoV-2 RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (SARS-CoV-2 RdRp), the binding domain of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein (SARS-CoV-2 rS), and human angiotensin−converting enzyme (hACE2). The compound with the best normalized docking score to SARS-CoV-2 Mpro was the sesquiterpene hydrocarbon (E)-β-farnesene. The best docking ligands for SARS−CoV Nsp15/NendoU were (E,E)-α-farnesene, (E)-β-farnesene, and (E,E)−farnesol. (E,E)−Farnesol showed the most exothermic docking to SARS-CoV-2 ADRP. Unfortunately, the docking energies of (E,E)−α-farnesene, (E)-β-farnesene, and (E,E)−farnesol with SARS-CoV-2 targets were relatively weak compared to docking energies with other proteins and are, therefore, unlikely to interact with the virus targets. However, essential oil components may act synergistically, essential oils may potentiate other antiviral agents, or they may provide some relief of COVID-19 symptoms.

Full text

From PubMed Central, U.S. National Library of Medicine, as current on Oct 24, 2026. Paragraph numbers are ours, so an answer can point at one.

1. Introduction

The 2019 severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a newly emerging respiratory illness. The epidemic started in December 2019 in Wuhan, China, and has rapidly spread throughout China and the world and is now a global pandemic. SARS-CoV-2 can be efficiently transmitted among humans and has shown a high degree of morbidity and mortality. As of April 20, 2020, the worldwide number of infected individuals was 2,544,792, with as many as 175,694 deaths. There are currently no approved vaccines available for the prevention of SARS-CoV-2 infection and only just recently, remdesivir has received “emergency use authorization” for treatment of COVID-19 in the United States; therefore, there is an urgent demand for potential chemotherapeutic agents to treat this disease.

Essential oils have been screened against several pathogenic viruses (Table 1), including influenza and other respiratory viral infections. Influenza is an infectious respiratory disease caused by one of three types of influenza viruses, type A, type B, or type C. The most significant in terms of human morbidity and mortality is influenza virus type A, which is found in several bird and mammal species. Several different serotypes of influenza type A have caused global flu pandemics: H1N1, which caused the Spanish flu in 1918 (40–50 million deaths worldwide) and the swine flu in 2009; the Asian flu of 1957–1958 (ca. 1.5 million deaths worldwide) was caused by influenza A H2N2; serotype H3N2 caused the Hong Kong flu in 1968; and H5N1, which caused the bird flu in 2004. Influenza virus type B, however, is largely confined to human hosts.

One study evaluated the in vitro antiviral effect against influenza type A (H1N1) of commercial essential oils that included cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum), bergamot (Citrus bergamia), lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexuosus), thyme (Thymus vulgaris), and lavender (Lavandula angustifolia). The oils were tested in the liquid phase at a concentration of 0.3% and in the vapor phase. The oils of cinnamon, bergamot, thyme, and lemongrass displayed 100% inhibition of H1N1 in the liquid phase, while the inhibition for lavender essential oil was 85%. However, in the vapor phase, 100% inhibition was observed only for cinnamon leaf essential oil after 30 min of exposure. The bergamot, lemongrass, thyme, and lavender essential oils displayed inhibition rates of 95%, 90%, 70%, and 80%, respectively.

Cinnamomum zeylanicum leaf oil is characterized by eugenol (75–85%), followed by smaller amounts of linalool (1.6–8.5%), and benzyl benzoate (0.1–8.3%). Bergamot oil is rich in limonene (23–55%), linalool (2–37%), and linalyl acetate (12–41%), with lesser quantities of β-pinene (up to 10%) and γ-terpinene (up to 10%). Geranial (48–54%) and neral (29–33%) have been reported as the major components of C. flexuosus, but many chemotypes, cultivars, and variants have been reported for C. flexuosus.

In the literature, there have been at least 20 different chemotypes identified for thyme essential oil. The “typical” thyme essential oil presents a thymol content of 45% (range 31–50%), with significant concentrations of p-cymene (0.1–26.6%, average = 15.6%) and γ-terpinene (up to 22.8%, average = 9.3%). In addition, there are several other chemotypes of T. vulgaris rich in thymol and/or carvacrol. Thymol has been identified as an anti-influenza agent against influenza type A and parainfluenza type 3 virus. Lavandula angustifolia essential oil is rich in linalyl acetate (37.0–43.6%), linalool (19.7–39.1%), geraniol (up to 9.3%), β-caryophyllene (up to 5.1%), terpinen-4-ol (up to 14.9%), lavandulyl acetate (up to 5.5%), and borneol (up to 6.4%).

Another essential oil with notable anti-influenza effects is tea tree, which is extracted from the leaves of Melaleuca alternifolia (Myrtaceae). Commercial tea tree oil is composed of terpinen-4-ol (30–48%), γ-terpinene (10–28%), α-terpinene (5–13%), 1,8-cineole (up to 15%), terpinolene (1.5–5%), p-cymene (0.5–12%), α-pinene (1–6%), and α-terpineol (1.5–8%). Tea tree oil showed 100% inhibition of influenza type A (H1N1) virus at 0.01% concentration and a median inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 6 μg/mL. In addition, 30 min exposure of type A (H11N9) virus to tea tree oil vapor caused 100% inhibition. The tea tree oil components, terpinen-4-ol, terpinolene, and α-terpineol, have shown anti-influenza virus activity against type A (H1N1), with IC50 values of 25, 12, and 250 μg/mL, respectively. α-Terpinene, γ-terpinene, and p-cymene were inactive, however.

Avian influenza viruses (H5N1) exhibit both high and low virulence in numerous mammalian species, highlighting the connection between the route of inoculation and virus pathogenicity. Since 2003, there have been over 600 documented cases of human infection with H5N1 viruses, with most cases among young, previously healthy individuals. The essential oils extracted from Citrus reshni leaves and peel (unripe and ripe fruits) were tested against H5N1 virus by plaque reduction assay. The oils showed moderate inhibition of the H5N1 virus at a concentration of 2.5 μL/mL. Sabinene (40.5%), linalool (23.3%), and terpinen-4-ol (8.3%) were the main constituents in the leaf oil while limonene (82.4%, 91.6%) was the main compound in the fruit peel essential oils (unripe and ripe, respectively).

The essential oil of leaves of Fortunella margarita is rich in the sesquiterpenoids β-eudesmol (28.3%), α-muurolene (10.3%), β-gurjunene (10.0%), γ-eudesmol (8.4%), and γ-muurolene (6.6%) while the essential oil extracted from the fruits showed monterpenoids as the main components, α-terpineol (55.5%), carvone (5.7%), and carveol (5.5%). Both samples were tested for antiviral activity against avian influenza (H5N1) virus, and the obtained results revealed that the fruit essential oil was more effective (80% virus inhibition by the MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay using Madin−Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells for virus propagation). The IC50 values obtained for the leaf and fruit essential oils were 38.89 and 6.77 μg/mL, respectively.

Dengue fever, a mosquito−borne disease, is caused by dengue virus (DENV) which includes four major serotypes (DENV-1, -2, -3, and -4). Some serotypes cause more severe diseases than others; severe dengue is associated with secondary infections by a different serotype. Dengue disease is a major public health problem in developing tropical countries and has being continuously spreading to new geographical areas. The essential oils of two species of Lippia were assayed against four dengue serotypes (DENV-1, DENV-2, DENV-3, DENV-4). The IC50 values for Lippia alba oil, rich in carvone (39.7%), limonene (30.6%), and bicyclosesquiphellandrene (8.9%), were between 0.4 and 32.6 μg/mL. However, the Lippia citrodora essential oil, composed of geranial (18.9%), neral (15.6%), limonene (10.7%), and 1,8-cineole (5.0%), showed the best activity, with IC50 values varying from 1.9 to 33.7 μg/mL. No viral inhibitory effect was observed by addition of the essential oil after virus adsorption; the inhibitory effect of the essential oil seemed to cause direct virus inactivation before adsorption on the host cell.

The essential oils of seven aromatic plants from Córdoba, San Luis, and San Juan provinces (Argentina) were screened for cytotoxicity and in vitro inhibitory activity against dengue virus type 2 (DENV−2). The oils of Jungia polita and Buddleja cordobensis were composed of caryophyllene oxide (9.18%, 32.1%) and β-caryophyllene (8.13%, 16.5%) as the major compounds. However, these oils displayed different IC50 values (86.4 and 39.8 μg/mL, respectively). The other samples were composed mostly of monoterpenes and displayed lower activity, except Pectis odorata oil, which presented limonene (50.2%), neral (27.2%), and geranial (23.6%) as the major compounds and an IC50 value of 39.6 μg/mL. In addition, the essential oils of Artemisia mendozana, rich in camphor (22.4%), artemisole (11.7%), and artemisia alcohol (10.8%); Gailardia megapotamica composed of β-pinene (35.5%), spathulenol (10.7%), and germacrene D (6.8%); and Heterothalamus alienus characterized by β-pinene (35.5%), spathulenol (10.7%), and germacrene D (6.8%), showed an average IC50 value of 130.63 μg/mL.

Yellow fever (YF), caused by yellow fever virus (YFV), has historically been considered one of the most dangerous infectious diseases. YFV is transmitted to humans via mosquitoes of the Haemogogus, Sabethes, and Aedes genera. Annually, there are approximately 80,000–200,000 YFV cases worldwide, with a case fatality rate (CFR) ranging from 20–60%. Essential oils of Lippia species and their main compounds have been tested against yellow fever virus (YFV) in Vero cells. The oil of Lippia origanoides showed carvacrol (44.0%), thymol (15.0%), and γ-terpinene (10.0%) as the main compounds and displayed 100% inhibition at a concentration of 11.1 μg/mL. However, in the same study, the oil of L. alba displayed 100% inhibition at a concentration of 100.0 μg/mL. The major compounds were carvone (51.0%), limonene (33.0%), and bicyclosesquiphellandrene (7.0%). The essential oil of L. alba with a similar chemical composition, carvone (39.7%), limonene (30.6%), and bicyclosesquiphellandrene (8.9%), displayed an IC50 value of 4.3 μg/mL against YFV when tested in Vero cells using the MTT assay. The essential oil of L. citriodora, dominated by geranial (18.9%), neral (15.6%), and limonene (10.7%), did not display a statistical difference in comparison to citral, with IC50 values of 19.4 and 17.6 μg/mL, respectively.

In addition to essential oils, several individual essential oil components have been screened for antiviral activity (Table 2).

Because of the activities of several essential oils and essential oil components against human pathogenic viruses, we hypothesized that essential oil components may be potentially useful as antiviral agents against SARS-CoV-2. In this work, we carried out a molecular docking analysis of the major components of essential oils that exhibit antiviral activity (Table 1 and Table 2) with known SARS-CoV-2 protein targets.

2. Results and Discussion

Several proteins have been identified for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which may serve as potential targets for chemotherapeutic intervention in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). These protein targets include SARS-CoV-2 main protease (SARS-CoV-2 Mpro), SARS-CoV-2 endoribonucleoase (SARS-CoV-2 Nsp15/NendoU), SARS-CoV-2 ADP−ribose−1″−phosphatase (SARS-CoV-2 ADRP), SARS-CoV-2 RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (SARS-CoV-2 RdRp), the binding domain of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein (SARS-CoV-2 rS), and human angiotensin−converting enzyme (hACE2). There have already been several molecular docking studies on these macromolecular targets. Several groups have carried out molecular docking of natural product libraries with SARS-CoV-2 Mpro. Additionally, commercially available drugs have also been examined using in silico methods.

A molecular docking study was carried out with 171 essential oil components with SARS-CoV-2 Mpro (PDB: 5R7Z, 5R80, 5R81, 5R82, 5R83, 5R84, 6LU7, 6M03, and 6Y84), SARS-CoV-2 Nsp15/NendoU (PDB: 6VWW, 6W01, and 6W02), SARS-CoV-2 rS (PDB: 6M0J, 6M17, 6VX1, and 6VW1), and SARS-CoV-2 RdRp (PDB: 6M71). The best docking scores are summarized in Table 3.

The main protease, SARS-CoV-2 Mpro, is a cysteine protease that is essential for processing the polyproteins that are translated from the coronavirus RNA. The substrate binding site of the enzyme is a cleft flanked by Gln189, Met49, Pro168, Glu166 and His41; the active site is Cys145 and His41. The compound with the best normalized docking score to SARS-CoV-2 Mpro was the sesquiterpene hydrocarbon (E)-β-farnesene (DSnorm = −115.4 kJ/mol). Other essential oil components showing good docking scores with SARS-CoV-2 Mpro were (E,E)-α-farnesene (DSnorm = −115.0 kJ/mol), (E,E)-farnesol (DSnorm = −112.4 kJ/mol), and (E)-nerolidol (DSnorm = −110.7 kJ/mol). The sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (E,E)-α-farnesene and (E)-β-farnesene occupy the substrate binding site, flanked by Gln189, Arg188, Met165, His41, and Asp 187 (Figure 1). The lowest-energy docked poses of both (E,E)-farnesol and (E)-nerolidol showed hydrogen bonding of the alcohol moiety to Gln192 and Thr190 and, in the case of (E)-nerolidol, also with GLN189 and ARG188 (Figure 2).

Non-structural protein 15 (Nsp15) of SARS-CoV-2 is an endoribonuclease that preferentially cleaves RNA at uridylate. Furthermore, it has been shown that SARS-CoV Nsp15/NendoU is required for successful viral infection. The best docking ligands for SARS-CoV Nsp15/NendoU are (E,E)-α-farnesene (DSnorm = −107.5 kJ/mol), (E)-β-farnesene (DSnorm = −105.0 kJ/mol), (E,E)-farnesol (DSnorm = −104.6 kJ/mol), and (E)-nerolidol (DSnorm = −101.6 kJ/mol). All of these sesquiterpenoids preferentially docked into a binding site formed by amino acid residues Gln347, Ile328, Val276, Ser274, Thr275, Ser329, Asn74, Asn75, Glu327, and Lys71 (Figure 3). In addition to van der Waals interactions, (E,E)-farnesol showed hydrogen-bonding interactions with Ser329 and Glu327, while (E)-nerolidol hydrogen bonded with Asn75 and Lys71 (Figure 3). Unfortunately, the docking scores for these ligands as well as the scores of the other essential oil components with this protein are too low for it to be considered a viable target (see Table 3).

ADP ribose phosphatase (ADRP) serves to convert ADP-ribose 1″-monophosphate (Appr-1″-p) to ADP-ribose (Appr), which serves to regulate virus replication. This enzyme may be dispensable in SARS-CoV-2, however. Nevertheless, (E,E)-farnesol showed the most exothermic docking to SARS-CoV-2 ADRP with DSnorm = −121.4 kJ/mol. The binding site in SARS-CoV-2 ADRP is surrounded by Phe132, Asn40, Ile131, Ala38, and Ala39, with hydrogen-bonded interactions between the ligand alcohol and Asn40 (Figure 4). Additional essential oil components with good docking scores with SARS-CoV-2 ADRP include the sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (E)-β-farnesene (DSnorm = −116.3 kJ/mol), (E,E)-α-farnesene (DSnorm = −114.2 kJ/mol), β-sesquiphellandrene (DSnorm = −115.7 kJ/mol), and α-zingiberene (DSnorm = −115.4 kJ/mol); the diterpenoids phytol (DSnorm = −118.9 kJ/mol) and phytone (DSnorm = −116.9 kJ/mol); and the phenylpropanoid eugenyl acetate (DSnorm = −115.4 kJ/mol). Not surprisingly, β-sesquiphellandrene and α-zingiberene adopted the same docking orientation in the binding site of the enzyme (Figure 5A). Similarly, phytol and phytone occupy the same location in the binding site (Figure 5B).

RNA-dependent RNA polymerase catalyzes RNA replication from an RNA template and is an essential enzyme in RNA viruses. Because these enzymes are crucial in viral replication, they are viable targets in antiviral chemotherapy. Molecular docking of essential oil components with SARS-CoV-2 RdRp showed only weak docking with this enzyme target (Table 3). The ligand with the best docking score was (E,E)-farnesol, with DSnorm = −89.6 kJ/mol.

The SARS-CoV-2 spike protein serves to attach to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) of the human cell to be invaded. The interface between SARS-CoV-2 rS and human ACE2 would be a promising target to prevent binding of SARS-CoV-2 rS to human ACE2. The best docking ligands with human ACE2, i.e., normalized docking scores < -100 kJ/mol (α-bulnesene, eremanthin, (E,E)-α-farnesene, (E)-β-farnesene, (E,E)-farnesol, (E)-nerolidol, β-sesquiphellandrene, and (Z)-spiroether), all show docking preference to a cavity removed from the interaction interface between the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein and ACE2 (Figure 6). This cavity is a pocket surrounded by residues Pro565, Leu95, Val209, Asn210, Leu91, Lys94, Glu208, and Glu564. Because of the remote location of docking with ACE2, it is predicted that interaction of essential oil components with ACE2 will not prevent protein–protein interaction between the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein and human ACE2.

On the other hand, the lowest energy poses of essential oil components showing the strongest docking (<−80 kJ/mol; (E)-cinnamyl acetate, eremanthin, (E,E)-α-farnesene, (E)-β-farnesene, (E,E)-farnesol, and geranyl formate) with the binding domain of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein do lie at the interface between the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein and human ACE2 (Figure 6). This docking site is a hydrophobic pocket formed by Tyr505, Tyr495, Asn501, Arg403, Tyr453, and Gly502. Unfortunately, the docking energies at this site are too weak and are unlikely, therefore, to disrupt binding between SARS-CoV-2 rS and human ACE2.

In order to compare docking scores of the essential oil components with other proteins, docking was also carried out with six randomly selected non-virus proteins: Bovine odorant binding protein (BtOBP, PDB: 1GT3), cruzain (PDB: 1ME3), torpedo acetylcholinesterase (TcAChE, PDB: 6G1U), Bacillus anthracis nicotinate mononucleotide adenylytransferase (BaNadD, PDB: 3HFJ), Russell’s viper phospholipase A2 (DrPLA2, PDB: 1FV0), and Escherichia coli l-aspartate aminotransferase (EcAspTA, PDB: 2Q7W). Docking scores for these proteins are summarized in Table 4.

The docking results of the essential oil components with the six randomly selected proteins indicate the best docking ligands to SARS-CoV-2 targets (i.e., (E,E)-α-farnesene, (E)-β-farnesene, and (E,E)-farnesol) have better docking energies with other proteins. These three sesquiterpenes have docking energies of −129.8, −122.7, and −133.0 kJ/mol with TcAChE, respectively, and −131.8, −131.8, and −135.6 kJ/mol, respectively, with BaNadD. Indeed, most of the essential oil ligands have better docking properties with one or more of the random proteins compared to the SARS-CoV-2 proteins.

Based on the docking energies of essential oil components with key protein targets of SARS-CoV-2, the individual essential oil components cannot be considered viable chemotherapeutic agents for interaction with the SARS-CoV-2 target proteins. However, essential oils are complex mixtures of compounds and several essential oil components may act synergistically to inhibit the virus. Astani and co-workers have shown, for example, that the antiviral activity (HSV-1) of Eucalyptus oil is much greater than the major component 1,8-cineole, and that tea tree oil has a greater antiviral activity than its components terpinen-4-ol, γ-terpinene, and α-terpinene.

Synergistic effects have also been observed between essential oils and synthetic antiviral agents. Civitelli and co-workers observed an antiviral synergism between Mentha suaveolens essential oil and acyclovir on HSV-1. Likewise, Melissa officinalis essential oil potentiated the activity of oseltamivir against avian influenza virus H9N2. Furthermore, essential oils are lipophilic and therefore may also serve to disintegrate viral membranes.

Outside of antiviral activity, there may be some relief of symptoms of COVID-19 provided by essential oils. For example, linalool, β-caryophyllene, and 1,8-cineole have both anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activity; menthol, camphor, and thymol have antitussive activities.

3.1. Bibliographic Search Criteria

The bibliographic research was performed using the databases Google Scholar, Pubmed, Science Direct, Medline, and Scopus. The keywords applied were “antiviral activity” and “essential oils”, “antiviral activity” and “volatile compounds”, and “essential oils” and “respiratory diseases”.

3.2. Ligand Selection

The major components (>5%) of essential oils and pure essential oil components that have been screened against human pathogenic viruses were selected. In the case where enantiomers are known to be natural products, both structures were selected. A total of 171 essential oil components were used in the virtual screening.

3.3. Molecular Docking

Each ligand structure was prepared using Spartan ’18 v. 1.4.4 (Wavefunction, Inc., Irvine, CA, USA). The lowest-energy conformations of the ligands were determined and used as starting structures in the molecular docking. This is particularly important to include all potential conformations in medium-sized rings where interconversion between conformations may be hindered (e.g., bicyclogermacrene, costunolide, curdione, germacrene D, germacrone, and α-humulene). A total of six protein targets of SARS-CoV-2 from the Protein Data Bank (PDB), represented by a total of 17 structures, were used in the molecular docking, including SARS-CoV-2 main protease (PDB: 5R7Z, 5R80, 5R81, 5R82, 5R83, 5R84, 6LU7, 6M03, and 6Y84), SARS-CoV-2 endoribonuclease (PDB: 6VWW), SARS-CoV-2 ADP ribose phosphatase (PDB: 6W01 and 6W02), SARS-CoV-2 RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (PDB: 6M71), SARS-CoV-2 spike protein binding domain (PDB: 6M0J, 6VX1, 6VW1, and 6M17), and the human angiotensin-converting enzyme (PDB: 6M0J, 6VX1, 6VW1, and 6M17). Molecular docking was carried out using Molegro Virtual Docker v. 6.0.1 (Aarhus, Denmark) as previously reported. Briefly, a 15-Å radius sphere centered on the binding sites of each protein structure in order to permit each ligand to search. In the case of the spike protein and human ACE2, the docking sphere was located at the interface between the spike protein and ACE2. In one case, ACE2 was removed and docking was carried out with the spike protein, and in the other case, the spike protein was removed and docking was carried out with ACE2. Standard protonation states of each protein, based on neutral pH, were used, and charges were assigned based on standard templates as part of the Molegro Virtual Docker program. Each protein was used as a rigid model without protein relaxation. Flexible-ligand models were used in the docking optimizations. Different orientations of the ligands were searched and ranked based on their “rerank” energy scores. A minimum of 100 runs for each ligand was carried out. In analyzing the docking scores, we accounted for the recognized bias due to molecular weight using the scheme: DSnorm = 7.2 × Edock/MW⅓, where DSnorm is the normalized docking score, Edock is the MolDock re-rank score, MW is the molecular weight, and 7.2 is a scaling constant to ensure the average DSnorm values are comparable to those of Edock. The best docking results are summarized in Table 1.

4. Conclusions

A molecular docking analysis was carried out using 171 essential oil components with the SARS-CoV-2 main protease (SARS-CoV-2 Mpro), SARS-CoV-2 endoribonucleoase (SARS-CoV-2 Nsp15/NendoU), SARS-CoV-2 ADP-ribose-1″-phosphatase (SARS-CoV-2 ADRP), SARS-CoV-2 RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (SARS-CoV-2 RdRp), the binding domain of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein (SARS-CoV-2 rS), and human angiotensin-converting enzyme (hACE2). The best docking ligands for the SARS-CoV target proteins were (E,E)-α-farnesene, (E)-β-farnesene, and (E,E)-farnesol. The docking energies were relatively weak, however, and are unlikely to interact with the virus targets. However, essential oil components may act synergistically, essential oils may potentiate other antiviral agents, or they may provide some relief of COVID-19 symptoms.

References 132

  1. 1.

    Lai C.-C., Shih T.-P., Ko W.-C., Tang H.-J., Hsueh P.-R. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19): The epidemic and the challenges. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents. 2020;55:105924.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105924

  2. 2.

    Yang X., Yu Y., Xu J., Shu H., Xia J., Liu H., Wu Y., Zhang L., Yu Z., Fang M., et al. Clinical course and outcomes of critically ill patients with SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia in Wuhan, China: A single-centered, retrospective, observational study. Lancet Respir. Med. 2020;2600:1-7.

    Not in our library10.1016/s2213-2600(20)30079-5

  3. 3.

    WHO. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) Situation Report—94.

    Not in our library

  4. 4.

    Glezen W.P., Couch R.B., Evans A.S., Kaslow R.A. Influenza viruses. Viral Infections of Humans. 1997;473-505.

    Not in our library

  5. 5.

    Baigent S.J., McCauley J.W. Influenza type A in humans, mammals and birds: Determinants of virus virulence, host-range and interspecies transmission. BioEssays. 2003;25:657-671.

    Not in our library10.1002/bies.10303

  6. 6.

    Guan Y., Vijaykrishna D., Bahl J., Zhu H., Wang J., Smith G.J.D. The emergence of pandemic influenza viruses. Protein Cell. 2010;1:9-13.

    Not in our library10.1007/s13238-010-0008-z

  7. 7.

    Johnson N.P.A.S., Mueller J. Updating the accounts: Global mortality of the 1918-1920 “Spanish” influenza pandemic. Bull. Hist. Med. 2002;76:105-115.

    Not in our library10.1353/bhm.2002.0022

  8. 8.

    Schnitzler S.U., Schnitzler P. An update on swine-origin influenza virus A/H1N1: A review. Virus Genes. 2009;39:279-292.

    Not in our library10.1007/s11262-009-0404-8

  9. 9.

    Hsieh Y.-C., Wu T.-Z., Liu D.-P., Shao P.-L., Chang L.-Y., Lu C.Y., Lee C.Y., Huang F.-Y., Huang L.-M. Influenza pandemics: Past, present and future. J. Formos. Med. Assoc. 2006;105:1-6.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0929-6646(09)60102-9

  10. 10.

    Gauthier-Clerc M., Lebarbenchon C., Thomas F. Recent expansion of highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1: A critical review. Ibis. 2007;149:202-214.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1474-919x.2007.00699.x

  11. 11.

    Earn D.J.D., Dushoff J., Levin S.A. Ecology and evolution of the flu. Trends Ecol. Evol. 2002;17:334-340.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0169-5347(02)02502-8

  12. 12.

    Vimalanathan S., Hudson J. Anti-influenza virus activity of essential oils and vapors. Am. J. Essent. Oils Nat. Prod. 2014;2:47-53.

    Not in our library

  13. 13.

    Mallavarapu G.R., Ramesh S., Chandrasekhara R.S., Rao B.R.R., Kaul P.N., Bhattacharya A.K. Investigation of the essential oil of cinnamon leaf grown at Bangalore and Hyderabad. Flavour Fragr. J. 1995;10:239-242.

    Not in our library10.1002/ffj.2730100403

  14. 14.

    Raina V.K., Srivastava S.K., Aggarwal K.K., Ramesh S., Kumar S. Essential oil composition of Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume leaves from Little Andaman, India. Flavour Fragr. J. 2001;16:374-376.

    Not in our library10.1002/ffj.1016

  15. 15.

    Fichi G., Flamini G., Zaralli L.J., Perrucci S. Efficacy of an essentifal oil of Cinnamomum zeylanicum against Psoroptes cuniculi. Phytomedicine. 2007;14:227-231.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.phymed.2006.01.004

  16. 16.

    Verzera A., Trozzi A., Gazea F., Cicciarello G., Cotroneo A. Effects of rootstock on the composition of bergamot (Citrus bergamia Risso et Poiteau) essential oil. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2003;51:206-210.

    Not in our library10.1021/jf0206872

  17. 17.

    Sawamura M., Onishi Y., Ikemoto J., Tu N.T.M., Phi N.T.L. Characteristic odour components of bergamot (Citrus bergamia Risso) essential oil. Flavour Fragr. J. 2006;21:609-615.

    Not in our library10.1002/ffj.1604

  18. 18.

    Costa R., Dugo P., Navarra M., Raymo V., Dugo G., Mondello L. Study on the chemical composition variability of some processed bergamot (Citrus bergamia) essential oils. Flavour Fragr. J. 2008;25:4-12.

    Not in our library10.1002/ffj.1949

  19. 19.

    Schipilliti L., Dugo G., Santi L., Dugo P., Mondello L. Authentication of bergamot essential oil by gas chromatography-combustion-isotope ratio mass spectrometer (GC-C-IRMS). J. Essent. Oil Res. 2011;23:60-71.

    Not in our library10.1080/10412905.2011.9700447

  20. 20.

    Tundis R., Loizzo M.R., Bonesi M., Menichini F., Mastellone V., Colica C., Menichini F. Comparative study on the antioxidant capacity and cholinesterase inhibitory activity of Citrus aurantifolia Swingle, C. aurantium L., and C. bergamia Risso and Poit. peel essential oils. J. Food Sci. 2012;77:H40-H46.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1750-3841.2011.02511.x

  21. 21.

    Padalia R.C., Verma R.S., Chanotiya C.S., Yadav A. Chemical fingerprinting of the fragrant volatiles of nineteen Indian cultivars of Cymbopogon Spreng. (Poaceae). Rec. Nat. Prod. 2011;5:290-299.

    Not in our library

  22. 22.

    Gupta A.K., Muhury R., Ganjewala D. A study on antimicrobial activities of essential oils of different cultivars of lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexuosus). Pharm. Sci. 2016;22:164-169.

    Not in our library10.15171/ps.2016.26

  23. 23.

    Satyal P., Murray B.L., McFeeters R.L., Setzer W.N. Essential oil characterization of Thymus vulgaris from various geographical locations. Foods. 2016;5:70.

    Not in our library10.3390/foods5040070

  24. 24.

    Erdoǧan Orhan I., Özçelik B., Kartal M., Kan Y. Antimicrobial and antiviral effects of essential oils from selected Umbelliferae and Labiatae plants and individual essential oil components. Turkish J. Biol. 2012;36:239-246.

    Not in our library

  25. 25.

    Alburn H.E., Chester W., Greenspan G. Thymol as an anti-influenza agent. U.S. Patent. 1972.

    Not in our library

  26. 26.

    Evandri M.G., Battinelli L., Daniele C., Mastrangelo S., Bolle P., Mazzanti G. The antimutagenic activity of Lavandula angustifolia (lavender) essential oil in the bacterial reverse mutation assay. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2005;43:1381-1387.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.fct.2005.03.013

  27. 27.

    De Martino L., De Feo V., Nazzaro F. Chemical composition and in vitro antimicrobial and mutagenic activities of seven Lamiaceae essential oils. Molecules. 2009;14:4213-4230.

    Not in our library10.3390/molecules14104213

  28. 28.

    Lafhal S., Vanloot P., Bombarda I., Kister J., Dupuy N. Chemometric analysis of French lavender and lavandin essential oils by near infrared spectroscopy. Ind. Crops Prod. 2016;80:156-164.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.indcrop.2015.11.017

  29. 29.

    De Rapper S., Viljoen A., van Vuuren S. The in vitro antimicrobial effects of Lavandula angustifolia essential oil in combination with conventional antimicrobial agents. Evidence-Based Complement. Altern. Med. 2016;2016:2752739.

    Not in our library10.1155/2016/2752739

  30. 30.

    Hammer K.A., Carson C.F., Riley T.V., Nielsen J.B. A review of the toxicity of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2006;44:616-625.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.fct.2005.09.001

  31. 31.

    Garozzo A., Timpanaro R., Bisignano B., Furneri P.M., Bisignano G., Castro A. In vitro antiviral activity of Melaleuca alternifolia essential oil. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 2009;49:806-808.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1472-765x.2009.02740.x

  32. 32.

    Garozzo A., Timpanaro R., Stivala A., Bisignano G., Castro A. Activity of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil on influenza virus A/PR/8: Study on the mechanism of action. Antiviral Res. 2011;89:83-88.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.antiviral.2010.11.010

  33. 33.

    Usachev E.V., Pyankov O.V., Usacheva O.V., Agranovski I.E. Antiviral activity of tea tree and eucalyptus oil aerosol and vapour. J. Aerosol Sci. 2013;59:22-30.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.jaerosci.2013.01.004

  34. 34.

    Sonnberg S., Webby R.J., Webster R.G. Natural history of highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1. Virus Res. 2013;178:63-77.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.virusres.2013.05.009

  35. 35.

    Belser J.A., Tumpey T.M. H5N1 pathogenesis studies in mammalian models. Virus Res. 2013;178:168-185.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.virusres.2013.02.003

  36. 36.

    Nagy M.M., Al-Mahdy D.A., Abd El Aziz O.M., Kandil A.M., Tantawy M.A., El Alfy T.S.M. Chemical composition and antiviral activity of essential oils from Citrus reshni Hort. ex Tanaka (Cleopatra mandarin) cultivated in Egypt. J. Essent. Oil-Bearing Plants. 2018;21:264-272.

    Not in our library10.1080/0972060x.2018.1436986

  37. 37.

    García C.C., Talarico L., Almeida N., Colombres S., Duschatzky C., Damonte E.B. Virucidal activity of essential oils from aromatic plants of San Luis, Argentina. Phyther. Res. 2003;17:1073-1075.

    Not in our library10.1002/ptr.1305

  38. 38.

    Duschatzky C.B., Possetto M.L., Talarico L.B., García C.C., Michis F., Almeida N.V., De Lampasona M.P., Schuff C., Damonte E.B. Evaluation of chemical and antiviral properties of essential oils from South American plants. Antivir. Chem. Chemother. 2005;16:247-251.

    Not in our library10.1177/095632020501600404

  39. 39.

    Sinico C., De Logu A., Lai F., Valenti D., Manconi M., Loy G., Bonsignore L., Fadda A.M. Liposomal incorporation of Artemisia arborescens L. essential oil and in vitro antiviral activity. Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 2005;59:161-168.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ejpb.2004.06.005

  40. 40.

    Saddi M., Sanna A., Cottiglia F., Chisu L., Casu L., Bonsignore L., De Logu A. Antiherpevirus activity of Artemisia arborescens essential oil and inhibition of lateral diffusion in Vero cells. Ann. Clin. Microbiol. Antimicrob. 2007;6:10.

    Not in our library10.1186/1476-0711-6-10

  41. 41.

    Gavanji S., Sayedipour S.S., Larki B., Bakhtari A. Antiviral activity of some plant oils against herpes simplex virus type 1 in Vero cell culture. J. Acute Med. 2015;5:62-68.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.jacme.2015.07.001

  42. 42.

    Chung M.S. Antiviral activities of Artemisia princeps var. orientalis essential oil and its α-thujone against norovirus surrogates. Food Sci. Biotechnol. 2017;26:1457-1461.

    Not in our library10.1007/s10068-017-0158-3

  43. 43.
    Inhibitory effect of essential oils obtained from plants grown in Colombia on yellow fever virus replication <it>in vitro</it> · 2009
    Not checked
  44. 44.

    Haddad J.G., Picard M., Bénard S., Desvignes C., Desprès P., Diotel N., El Kalamouni C. Ayapana triplinervis essential oil and its main component thymohydroquinone dimethyl ether inhibit Zika virus at doses devoid of toxicity in zebrafish. Molecules. 2019;24:3447.

    Not in our library10.3390/molecules24193447

  45. 45.

    Loizzo M.R., Saab A., Tundis R., Statti G.A., Lampronti I., Menichini F., Gambari R., Cinatl J., Doerr H.W. Phytochemical analysis and in vitro evaluation of the biological activity against herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) of Cedrus libani A. Rich. Phytomedicine. 2008;15:79-83.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.phymed.2007.03.013

  46. 46.

    Setzer W.N. Essential oils as complementary and alternative medicines for the treatment of influenza. Am. J. Essent. Oil Nat. Prod. 2016;4:16-22.

    Not in our library

  47. 47.

    Bourne K.Z., Bourne N., Reising S.F., Stanberry L.R. Plant products as topical microbicide candidates: Assessment of in vitro and in vivo activity against herpes simplex virus type 2. Antiviral Res. 1999;42:219-226.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0166-3542(99)00020-0

  48. 48.

    Minami M., Kita M., Nakaya T., Yamamoto T., Kuriyama H., Imanishi J. The inhibitory effect of essential oils on herpes simplex virus type-1 replication in vitro. Microbiol. Immunol. 2003;47:681-684.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1348-0421.2003.tb03431.x

  49. 49.

    El Mokni R., Youssef F.S., Jmii H., Khmiri A., Bouazzi S., Jlassi I., Jaidane H., Dhaouadi H., Ashour M.L., Hammami S. The Essential oil of Tunisian Dysphania ambrosioides and its antimicrobial and antiviral properties. J. Essent. Oil-Bearing Plants. 2019;22:282-294.

    Not in our library10.1080/0972060x.2019.1588171

  50. 50.
    Chemical composition of 8 <it>eucalyptus</it> species' essential oils and the evaluation of their antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral activities · 2012
    Not checked
  51. 51.

    El-Baz F.K., Mahmoud K., El-Senousy W.M., Darwesh O.M., El Gohary A.E. Antiviral – antimicrobial and schistosomicidal activities of Eucalyptus camaldulensis essential oils. Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Rev. Res. 2015;31:262-268.

    Not in our library

  52. 52.

    Astani A., Reichling J., Schnitzler P. Comparative study on the antiviral activity of selected monoterpenes derived from essential oils. Phyther. Res. 2010;24:673-679.

    Not in our library10.1002/ptr.2955

  53. 53.

    Ibrahim N.A., El-Hawary S.S., Mohammed M.M.D., Farid M.A., Abdel-Wahed N.A.M., Ali M.A., El-Abd E.A.W. Chemical composition, antiviral against avian influenza (H5N1) virus and antimicrobial activities of the essential oils of the leaves and fruits of Fortunella margarita Lour. Swingle growing in Egypt. J. Appl. Pharm. Sci. 2015;5:6-12.

    Not in our library

  54. 54.

    Hayashi K., Kamiya M., Hayashi T. Virucidal effects of the steam distillate from Houttuynia cordata and its components on HSV-1, influenza virus, and HIV. Planta Med. 1995;61:237-241.

    Not in our library10.1055/s-2006-958063

  55. 55.

    Brand Y.M., Roa-Linares V.C., Betancur-Galvis L.A., Durán-García D.C., Stashenko E. Antiviral activity of Colombian Labiatae and Verbenaceae family essential oils and monoterpenes on human herpes viruses. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2016;28:130-137.

    Not in our library10.1080/10412905.2015.1093556

  56. 56.

    Schnitzler P., Koch C., Reichling J. Susceptibility of drug-resistant clinical herpes simplex virus type 1 strains to essential oils of ginger, thyme, hyssop, and sandalwood. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2007;51:1859-1862.

    Not in our library10.1128/aac.00426-06

  57. 57.

    Koch C., Reichling J., Schneele J., Schnitzler P. Inhibitory effect of essential oils against herpes simplex virus type 2. Phytomedicine. 2008;15:71-78.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.phymed.2007.09.003

  58. 58.

    Koch C., Reichling J., Kehm R., Sharaf M.M., Zentgraf H., Schneele J., Schnitzler P. Efficacy of anise oil, dwarf-pine oil and chamomile oil against thymidine-kinase-positive and thymidine-kinase-negative herpesviruses. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 2008;60:1545-1550.

    Not in our library10.1211/jpp.60.11.0017

  59. 59.
    Screening for Antiviral Activities of Isolated Compounds from Essential Oils · 2011
    No notice
  60. 60.

    Reichling J., Koch C., Stahl-Biskup E., Sojka C., Schnitzler P. Virucidal activity of a β-triketone-rich essential oil of Leptospermum scoparium (Manuka Oil) Against HSV-1 and HSV-2 in cell culture. Planta Med. 2005;71:1123-1127.

    Not in our library10.1055/s-2005-873175

  61. 61.

    Ocazionez R.E., Meneses R., Torres F.Á., Stashenko E. Virucidal activity of Colombian Lippia essential oils on dengue virus replication in vitro. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz. 2010;105:304-309.

    Not in our library10.1590/s0074-02762010000300010

  62. 62.

    Gómez L.A., Stashenko E., Ocazionez R.E. Comparative study on in vitro activities of citral, limonene and essential oils from Lippia citriodora and L. alba on yellow fever virus. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2013;8:249-252.

    Not in our library10.1177/1934578x1300800230

  63. 63.

    Pilau M.R., Alves S.H., Weiblen R., Arenhart S., Cueto A.P., Lovato L.T. Antiviral activity of the Lippia graveolens (Mexican oregano) essential oil and its main compound carvacrol against human and animal viruses. Brazilian J. Microbiol. 2011;42:1616-1624.

    Not in our library10.1590/s1517-83822011000400049

  64. 64.

    Civitelli L., Panella S., Marcocci M.E., De Petris A., Garzoli S., Pepi F., Vavala E., Ragno R., Nencioni L., Palamara A.T., et al. In vitro inhibition of herpes simplex virus type 1 replication by Mentha suaveolens essential oil and its main component piperitenone oxide. Phytomedicine. 2014;21:857-865.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.phymed.2014.01.013

  65. 65.

    Brun P., Bernabè G., Filippini R., Piovan A. In vitro antimicrobial activities of commercially available tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) essential oils. Curr. Microbiol. 2019;76:108-116.

    Not in our library10.1007/s00284-018-1594-x

  66. 66.

    Farag R.S., Shalaby A.S., El-Baroty G.A., Ibrahim N.A., Ali M.A., Hassan E.M. Chemical and biological evaluation of the essential oils of different Melaleuca species. Phyther. Res. 2004;18:30-35.

    Not in our library10.1002/ptr.1348

  67. 67.

    Allahverdiyev A., Duran N., Ozguven M., Koltas S. Antiviral activity of the volatile oils of Melissa officinalis L. against Herpes simplex virus type-2. Phytomedicine. 2004;11:657-661.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.phymed.2003.07.014

  68. 68.

    Schnitzler P., Schuhmacher A., Astani A., Reichling J. Melissa officinalis oil affects infectivity of enveloped herpesviruses. Phytomedicine. 2008;15:734-740.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.phymed.2008.04.018

  69. 69.

    Schuhmacher A., Reichling J., Schnitzler P. Virucidal effect of peppermint oil on the enveloped viruses herpes simplex virus type 1 and type 2 in vitro. Phytomedicine. 2003;10:504-510.

    Not in our library10.1078/094471103322331467

  70. 70.

    El Moussaoui N., Sanchez G., Khay E.O., Idaomar M., Ibn Mansour A., Abrini J., Aznar R. Antibacterial and antiviral activities of essential oils of northern Moroccan plants. Br. Biotechnol. J. 2013;3:318-331.

    Not in our library10.9734/bbj/2013/3596

  71. 71.

    Bouazzi S., Jmii H., El Mokni R., Faidi K., Falconieri D., Piras A., Jaïdane H., Porcedda S., Hammami S. Cytotoxic and antiviral activities of the essential oils from Tunisian fern, Osmunda regalis. S. Afr. J. Bot. 2018;118:52-57.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.sajb.2018.06.015

  72. 72.

    Sivropoulou A., Nikolaou C., Papanikolaou E., Kokkini S., Lanaras T., Arsenakis M. Antimicrobial, cytotoxic, and antiviral activities of Salvia fructicosa essential oil. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1997;45:3197-3201.

    Not in our library10.1021/jf970031m

  73. 73.

    Benencia F., Courrèges M.C. Antiviral activity of sandalwood oil against herpes simplex viruses-1 and -2. Phytomedicine. 1999;6:119-123.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0944-7113(99)80046-4

  74. 74.

    De Logu A., Loy G., Pellerano M.L., Bonsignore L., Schivo M.L. Inactivation of HSV-1 and HSV-2 and prevention of cell-to-cell virus spread by Santolina insularis essential oil. Antiviral Res. 2000;48:177-185.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0166-3542(00)00127-3

  75. 75.

    Zeghib A., Calliste C.-A., Simon A., Charfeddine R., Aouni M., Duroux J.-L., Kabouche A., Kabouche Z. Chemical composition and biological potential of Thymus willdenowii Boiss. & Reut. essential oil. Nat. Prod. Res. 2019;1-4.

    Not in our library10.1080/14786419.2019.1602830

  76. 76.

    Roy S., Chaurvedi P., Chowdhary A. Evaluation of antiviral activity of essential oil of Trachyspermum ammi against Japanese encephalitis virus. Pharmacognosy Res. 2015;7:263-267.

    Not in our library10.4103/0974-8490.157977

  77. 77.

    Shayeganmehr A., Vasfi Marandi M., Karimi V., Barin A., Ghalyanchilangeroudi A. Zataria multiflora essential oil reduces replication rate of avian influenza virus (H9N2 subtype) in challenged broiler chicks. Br. Poult. Sci. 2018;59:389-395.

    Not in our library10.1080/00071668.2018.1478064

  78. 78.

    Camero M., Lanave G., Catella C., Capozza P., Gentile A., Fracchiolla G., Britti D., Martella V., Buonavoglia C., Tempesta M. Virucidal activity of ginger essential oil against caprine alphaherpesvirus-1. Vet. Microbiol. 2019;230:150-155.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.vetmic.2019.02.001

  79. 79.

    Trovati G., Chierice G.O., Sanches E.A., Galhiane M.S. Essential oil composition of Aloysia gratissima from Brazil. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2009;21:325-326.

    Not in our library10.1080/10412905.2009.9700183

  80. 80.

    Santos F.M., Pinto J.E.B.P., Bertolucci S.K.V., Alvarenga A.A., Alves M.N., Duarte M.C.T., Sartoratto A. Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of the essential oil from the leaves and flowers of Aloysia gratissima. Rev. Bras. Plantas Med. 2013;15:583-588.

    Not in our library10.1590/s1516-05722013000400015

  81. 81.

    Militello M., Settanni L., Aleo A., Mammina C., Moschetti G., Giammanco G.M., Blàzquez M.A., Carrubba A. Chemical composition and antibacterial potential of Artemisia arborescens L. essential oil. Curr. Microbiol. 2011;62:1274-1281.

    Not in our library10.1007/s00284-010-9855-3

  82. 82.

    Bertuzzi G., Tirillini B., Angelini P., Venanzoni R. Antioxidative action of Citrus limonum essential oil on skin. European J. Med. Plants. 2013;3:1-9.

    Not in our library10.9734/ejmp/2013/1987

  83. 83.

    El-Leel O.F.A., El-Said N.A.M. Growth, essential oil and molecular genetic identification studies of some Eucalyptus species cultivated under Egyptian conditions. BAOJ Biotechnol. 2016;2:20.

    Not in our library

  84. 84.

    Silvestre A.J.D., Cavaleiro J.A.S., Delmond B., Filliatre C., Bourgeois G. Analysis of the variation of the essential oil composition of Eucalyptus globulus Labill. from Portugal using multivariate statistical analysis. Ind. Crops Prod. 1997;6:27-33.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0926-6690(96)00200-2

  85. 85.

    Barazandeh M.M. Essential oil composition of Lavandula latifolia Medik from Iran. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2002;14:103-104.

    Not in our library10.1080/10412905.2002.9699784

  86. 86.

    Pozzatti P., Scheid L.A., Spader T.B., Atayde M.L., Santurio J.M., Alves S.H. In vitro activity of essential oils extracted from plants used as spices against fluconazole-resistant and fluconazole-susceptible Candida spp. Can. J. Microbiol. 2008;54:950-956.

    Not in our library10.1139/w08-097

  87. 87.

    Raal A., Orav A., Püssa T., Valner C., Malmiste B., Arak E. Content of essential oil, terpenoids and polyphenols in commercial chamomile (Chamomilla recutita L. Rauschert) teas from different countries. Food Chem. 2012;131:632-638.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.09.042

  88. 88.

    Demir H., Kalaycı S. Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils of Ocimum basilicum var. album (L.) Benth, Lavandula angustifolia subsp. angustifolia, Melissa officinalis belonging to Lamiaceae family. J. Food Sci. Eng. 2017;7:461-471.

    Not in our library

  89. 89.

    Stevanovic T., Garneau F.-X., Jean F.-I., Gagnon H., Vilotic D., Petrovic S., Ruzic N., Pichette A. The essential oil composition of Pinus mugo Turra from Serbia. Flavour Fragr. J. 2005;20:96-97.

    Not in our library10.1002/ffj.1390

  90. 90.

    Hoim Y., Hiltunen R. Chemical composition of a commercial oil of Ravensara aromatica Sonn. used in aromatherapy. J. Essent. Oil Res. 1999;11:677-678.

    Not in our library10.1080/10412905.1999.9711993

  91. 91.

    Poli F., Bonsignore L., Loy G., Sacchetti G., Ballero M. Comparison between the essential oils of Santolina insularis (Genn. ex Fiori) Arrigoni and Santolina corsica Jord. et Fourr. from the island of Sardinia (Italy). J. Ethnopharmacol. 1997;56:201-208.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0378-8741(97)01528-6

  92. 92.
    An RT-PCR panel for rapid serotyping of dengue virus serotypes 1 to 4 in human serum and mosquito on a field-deployable PCR system. · 2019
    Not checked
  93. 93.

    Vasconcelos P.F.C., Monath T.P. Yellow fever remains a potential threat to public health. Vector-Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2016;16:566-567.

    Not in our library10.1089/vbz.2016.2031

  94. 94.

    Douam F., Ploss A. Yellow fever virus: Knowledge gaps impeding the fight against an old foe. Trends Microbiol. 2018;26:913-928.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.tim.2018.05.012

  95. 95.

    Hayashi K., Imanishi N., Kashiwayama Y., Kawano A., Terasawa K., Shimada Y., Ochiai H. Inhibitory effect of cinnamaldehyde, derived from Cinnamomi cortex, on the growth of influenza A/PR/8 virus in vitro and in vivo. Antiviral Res. 2007;74:1-8.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.antiviral.2007.01.003

  96. 96.

    Benencia F., Courrèges M.C. In vitro and in vivo activity of eugenol on human herpesvirus. Phyther. Res. 2000;14:495-500.

    Not in our library10.1002/1099-1573(200011)14:7<495::aid-ptr650>3.0.co;2-8

  97. 97.

    Liao Q., Qian Z., Liu R., An L., Chen X. Germacrone inhibits early stages of influenza virus infection. Antiviral Res. 2013;100:578-588.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.antiviral.2013.09.021

  98. 98.

    Armaka M., Papanikolaou E., Sivropoulou A., Arsenakis M. Antiviral properties of isoborneol, a potent inhibitor of herpes simplex virus type 1. Antiviral Res. 1999;43:79-92.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0166-3542(99)00036-4

  99. 99.

    Ryabchenko B., Tulupova E., Schmidt E., Wlcek K., Buchbauer G., Jirovetz L. Investigation of anticancer and antiviral properties of selected aroma samples. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2008;3:1085-1088.

    Not in our library10.1177/1934578x0800300710

  100. 100.

    Kiyohara H., Ichino C., Kawamura Y., Nagai T., Sato N., Yamada H. Patchouli alcohol: In vitro direct anti-influenza virus sesquiterpene in Pogostemon cablin Benth. J. Nat. Med. 2012;66:55-61.

    Not in our library10.1007/s11418-011-0550-x

  101. 101.

    Wu H., Li B., Wang X., Jin M., Wang G. Inhibitory effect and possible mechanism of action of patchouli alcohol against influenza a (H2N2) virus. Molecules. 2011;16:6489-6501.

    Not in our library10.3390/molecules16086489

  102. 102.
    Putative Inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2 Main Protease from A Library of Marine Natural Products: A Virtual Screening and Molecular Modeling Study · 2020
    No notice
  103. 103.

    Thuy B.T.P., My T.T.A., Hai N.T.T., Hieu L.T., Hoa T.T., Thi Phuong Loan H., Triet N.T., Van Anh T.T., Quy P.T., Van Tat P., et al. Investigation into SARS-CoV-2 resistance of compounds in garlic essential oil. ACS Omega. 2020.

    Not in our library10.1021/acsomega.0c00772

  104. 104.

    Joshi R., Jagdale S., Bansode S., Shankar S.S., Tellis M., Pandya V.K., Giri A., Kulkarni M. Discovery of multi-target-directed ligands by targeting host-specific SARS-CoV-2’s structurally conserved main protease. Preprints. 2020;2020:2020040068.

    Not in our library10.1080/07391102.2020.1760137

  105. 105.

    Manish M. Studies on computational molecular interaction between SARS-CoV-2 main protease and natural products. ChemRxiv. 2020.

    Not in our library10.26434/chemrxiv.12024789.v2

  106. 106.
    Predicting commercially available antiviral drugs that may act on the novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) through a drug-target interaction deep learning model · 2020
    No notice
  107. 107.

    Hofmarcher M., Mayr A., Rumetshofer E., Ruch P., Renz P., Schimunek J., Seidl P., Vall A., Widrich M., Hochreiter S., et al. Large-scale ligand-based virtual screening for SARS-CoV-2 inhibitors using deep neural networks. SSRN Electron. J. 2020.

    Not in our library10.2139/ssrn.3561442

  108. 108.
    Crystal structure of SARS-CoV-2 main protease provides a basis for design of improved α-ketoamide inhibitors · 2020
    No notice
  109. 109.

    Bhardwaj K., Sun J., Holzenburg A., Guarino L.A., Kao C.C. RNA recognition and cleavage by the SARS coronavirus endoribonuclease. J. Mol. Biol. 2006;361:243-256.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.jmb.2006.06.021

  110. 110.

    Saikatendu K.S., Joseph J.S., Subramanian V., Clayton T., Griffith M., Moy K., Velasquez J., Neuman B.W., Buchmeier M.J., Stevens R.C., et al. Structural basis of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus ADP-ribose-1″-phosphate dephosphorylation by a conserved domain of nsP3. Structure. 2005;13:1665-1675.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.str.2005.07.022

  111. 111.

    Putics A., Filipowicz W., Hall J., Gorbalenya A.E., Ziebuhr J. ADP-ribose-1"-monophosphatase: A conserved coronavirus enzyme that is dispensable for viral replication in tissue culture. J. Virol. 2005;79:12721-12731.

    Not in our library10.1128/jvi.79.20.12721-12731.2005

  112. 112.

    Chen S., Luo H., Chen L., Chen J., Shen J., Zhu W., Chen K., Shen X., Jiang H. An overall picture of SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV) genome-encoded major proteins: Structures, functions and drug development. Curr. Pharm. Des. 2006;12:4539-4553.

    Not in our library10.2174/138161206779010459

  113. 113.
    Structural basis for the recognition of SARS-CoV-2 by full-length human ACE2 · 2020
    No notice
  114. 114.

    Zhang H., Penninger J.M., Li Y., Zhong N., Slutsky A.S. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as a SARS-CoV-2 receptor: Molecular mechanisms and potential therapeutic target. Intensive Care Med. 2020;46:586-590.

    Not in our library10.1007/s00134-020-05985-9

  115. 115.

    Pourghanbari G., Nili H., Moattari A., Mohammadi A., Iraji A. Antiviral activity of the oseltamivir and Melissa officinalis L. essential oil against avian influenza A virus (H9N2). VirusDisease. 2016;27:170-178.

    Not in our library10.1007/s13337-016-0321-0

  116. 116.

    Cowan M.M. Plant products as antimicrobial agents. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 1999;12:564-582.

    Not in our library10.1128/cmr.12.4.564

  117. 117.

    Peana A.T., D’Aquila P.S., Chessa M.L., Moretti M.D.L., Serra G., Pippia P. (-)-Linalool produces antinociception in two experimental models of pain. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 2003;460:37-41.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0014-2999(02)02856-x

  118. 118.

    Li X.-J., Yang Y.-J., Li Y.-S., Zhang W.K., Tang H.-B. α-Pinene, linalool, and 1-octanol contribute to the topical anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of frankincense by inhibiting COX-2. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2016;179:22-26.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.jep.2015.12.039

  119. 119.

    Bakir B., Him A., Özbek H., Düz E., Tütüncü M. Investigation of the anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of β-caryophyllene. Int. J. Essent. Oil Ther. 2008;2:41-44.

    Not in our library

  120. 120.

    Klauke A., Racz I., Pradier B., Markert A., Zimmer A.M., Gertsch J., Zimmer A. The cannabinoid CB2 receptor-selective phytocannabinoid beta-caryophyllene exerts analgesic effects in mouse models of inflammatory and neuropathic pain. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2014;24:608-620.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.euroneuro.2013.10.008

  121. 121.

    Santos F.A., Rao V.S.N. Antiinflammatory and antinociceptive effects of 1,8-cineole a terpenoid oxide present in many plant essential oils. Phyther. Res. 2000;14:240-244.

    Not in our library10.1002/1099-1573(200006)14:4<240::aid-ptr573>3.0.co;2-x

  122. 122.

    Takaishi M., Fujita F., Uchida K., Yamamoto S., Shimizu M.S., Uotsu C.H., Shimizu M., Tominaga M. 1,8-Cineole, a TRPM8 agonist, is a novel natural antagonist of human TRPA1. Mol. Pain. 2012;8:86.

    Not in our library10.1186/1744-8069-8-86

  123. 123.

    Eccles R. Menthol and related cooling compounds. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 1994;46:618-630.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.2042-7158.1994.tb03871.x

  124. 124.

    Kamatou G.P.P., Vermaak I., Viljoen A.M., Lawrence B.M. Menthol: A simple monoterpene with remarkable biological properties. Phytochemistry. 2013;96:15-25.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.phytochem.2013.08.005

  125. 125.

    Laude E.A., Morice A.H., Grattan T.J. The antitussive effects of menthol, camphor, and cineole in conscious Guinea-pigs. Pulm. Pharmacol. 1994;7:179-184.

    Not in our library10.1006/pulp.1994.1021

  126. 126.

    Gavliakova S., Dolak T., Licha H., Krizova S., Plevkova J. Cineole, thymol and camphor nasal challenges and their effect on nasal symptoms and cough in an animal model. Acta Medica Martiniana. 2013;13:5-13.

    Not in our library10.2478/acm-2013-0012

  127. 127.

    Gavliakova S., Biringerova Z., Buday T., Brozmanova M., Calkovsky V., Poliacek I., Plevkova J. Antitussive effects of nasal thymol challenges in healthy volunteers. Respir. Physiol. Neurobiol. 2013;187:104-107.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.resp.2013.02.011

  128. 128.

    Snow Setzer M., Sharifi-Rad J., Setzer W.N. The search for herbal antibiotics: An in-silico investigation of antibacterial phytochemicals. Antibiotics. 2016;5:30.

    Not in our library10.3390/antibiotics5030030

  129. 129.

    Setzer M.S., Byler K.G., Ogungbe I.V., Setzer W.N. Natural products as new treatment options for trichomoniasis: A molecular docking investigation. Sci. Pharm. 2017;85:5.

    Not in our library10.3390/scipharm85010005

  130. 130.

    Pan Y., Huang N., Cho S., MacKerell A.D. Consideration of molecular weight during compound selection in virtual target-based database screening. J. Chem. Inf. Comput. Sci. 2003;43:267-272.

    Not in our library10.1021/ci020055f

  131. 131.

    Huang N., Nagarsekar A., Xia G., Hayashi J., MacKerell A.D. Identification of non-phosphate-containing small molecular weight inhibitors of the tyrosine kinase p56 Lck SH2 domain via in silico screening against the pY + 3 binding site. J. Med. Chem. 2004;47:3502-3511.

    Not in our library10.1021/jm030470e

  132. 132.

    Carta G., Knox A.J.S., Lloyd D.G. Unbiasing scoring functions: A new normalization and rescoring strategy. J. Chem. Inf. Model. 2007;47:1564-1571.

    Not in our library10.1021/ci600471m

Cited by papers we hold 2

Reads

Read by people on this page

None yet.

Checked or read by AI through naulon

None yet.

A person counts once a day per paper. We keep no cookie and no address: a reader is a hash that changes every day. Any month under five reads shows no number.

Are you an author?

Is this your paper?

Claim it to add your note and be paid when agents cite it. Free.