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Chromium-Induced Reactive Oxygen Species Accumulation by Altering the Enzymatic Antioxidant System and Associated Cytotoxic, Genotoxic, Ultrastructural, and Photosynthetic Changes in Plants

Abdul Wakeel, Ming Xu, Yinbo Gan

International Journal of Molecular Sciences · 2020 · Review · CC BY

doi:10.3390/ijms21030728

Abstract

Chromium (Cr) is one of the top seven toxic heavy metals, being ranked 21st among the abundantly found metals in the earth’s crust. A huge amount of Cr releases from various industries and Cr mines, which is accumulating in the agricultural land, is significantly reducing the crop development, growth, and yield. Chromium mediates phytotoxicity either by direct interaction with different plant parts and metabolic pathways or it generates internal stress by inducing the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Thus, the role of Cr-induced ROS in the phytotoxicity is very important. In the current study, we reviewed the most recent publications regarding Cr-induced ROS, Cr-induced alteration in the enzymatic antioxidant system, Cr-induced lipid peroxidation and cell membrane damage, Cr-induced DNA damage and genotoxicity, Cr-induced ultrastructural changes in cell and subcellular level, and Cr-induced alterations in photosynthesis and photosynthetic apparatus. Taken together, we conclude that Cr-induced ROS and the suppression of the enzymatic antioxidant system actually mediate Cr-induced cytotoxic, genotoxic, ultrastructural, and photosynthetic changes in plants.

Full text

From PubMed Central, U.S. National Library of Medicine, as current on Oct 23, 2026. Paragraph numbers are ours, so an answer can point at one.

1. Introduction

Chromium (Cr), heavy metal with a range of oxidation numbers [Cr(II) to Cr(VI)], which is placed in the group (VI-B) of transition elements in the modern periodic table. Chromium, which is the hard silver color metal with 7.19 g/cm3 density, 51.10 g/M molecular weight, and 24 atomic number, has been ranked 21st among the most abundantly found metals on the earth’s crust. The trivalent [chromite; Cr(III)] and the hexavalent [chromate; Cr(VI)] are the most stable naturally found Cr species. Hexavalent form of Cr is a potentially strong oxidizing agent, and higher water solubility, mobility, and bioavailability make it the most toxic form of Cr as compared to other Cr species. The oxygenated environment can convert Cr(III) into Cr(VI), the factors that are involved in maintaining the proper ratio of these Cr forms are oxygen concentration, pH, complexing factors, and reducing agents.

Chromium extraction from the mines has been excessively increased due to its increasing use in various industries. Kazakhstan, South Africa, China, and India are the world-leading Cr using countries. Leather tanning, metallurgy, electroplating, alloying, ceramic glazes, wood preservation, water corrosion inhibition, refractory bricks, pressure-treated lumber, textile dyes, and mordant, pigments and paints production, and paper and pulp production industries contribute to the hyperaccumulation of Cr in the environment. Furthermore, anthropogenic activities, such as the dumping Cr-contaminated liquids and solids wastes, are the reason for the hyperaccumulation of Cr in the environment. The emission of Cr from the cooling towers of the industries and the dust rising from the roads and roadsides are considered to be the most important Cr sources.

Increased Cr accumulation in the agricultural land causes damage the plant growth and development at the organ, cellular, or even genetic level. Cr-induced phytotoxicity is mostly mediated via induced reactive oxygen species (ROS), which cause the cellular and extracellular damage in plants. In the current study, we reviewed Cr-induced ROS, associated cellular, and ultra-structural damages in plants

2. Chromium-Induced Oxidative Stress in Plants

Plants that are exposed to unfavorable conditions produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) as a defense mechanism. The hyperaccumulation of ROS generates endogenous stress that can damage plant growth and development. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), superoxide anion (O2−), singlet oxygen (1O2), hydroxyl ion (HO−), peroxyl (RO−), alkoxyl (RO−), and organic hydroperoxide (ROOH) are the various ROS that are found in plants. Reactive oxygen species are produced in the mitochondria, peroxisome, and chloroplast as a byproduct of various biochemical reactions. Plants mechanisms that are in the regulation of ROS level include ROS biosynthesis, enzymatic, and/or non-enzymatic ROS scavenging. Heavy metals, such as lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), aluminum (Al), nickel (Ni), and Cr, are reported for the enhancement in ROS productions and accumulation. Various plant species that are exposed to toxic Cr level or industrial wastes containing the toxic level of Cr, showed induced ROS accumulation, as summarized in Table 1.

Chromium-induced ROS accumulation mediates various physiological, biochemical, molecular, and developmental changes in plants. These alterations in the physiological and biochemical process may be provoked by directly interacting with enzymes, lipids, proteins, and genetic material (DNA and/or RNA), or by Cr-induced ROS accumulation. Cr direct interaction or Cr-induced ROS both mediated membrane damage, degradation and deactivation of genetic material, proteins, and enzymes, which resulted in the growth inhibition by the suppression cell division or activation programmed cell death.

Chromium-induced ROS mediates ultra-structural alteration in various plant tissues and irreversibly degrades biomolecules, except for DNA, cysteine, and methionine, which can be restored, in a dose-dependent and tissue-specific manner. Reactive oxygen species are produced during the reduction reaction of Cr(VI) to Cr(III) and Fenton reaction. The catalytic power of Cr(III) is greater than iron (Fe), copper (Cu), cobalt (Co), manganese (Mn), and zinc (Zn) in the Fenton reaction. The Cr involvement in such reactions is not well studied and some other intermediates and factors may also be involved in the Cr-induced ROS generation. ROS mediated various physiological, biochemical, molecular, and ultrastructural changes, as shown in Figure 1.

3. Chromium-Mediated Alteration in the Enzymatic Antioxidant System

Plants have developed a complex and well-organized enzymatic antioxidant system to deal with access ROS, produced by various endogenous and exogenous stimuli, including toxic Cr levels. Superoxide (O2−) is converted to H2O2 by superoxide dismutase (SOD). H2O2 is converted by ascorbate peroxidase (APX), peroxidase (POD), and catalase (CAT) to H2O. Furthermore, to minimize the Cr, cadmium (Cd), bisphenol A (BPA), and other abiotic stresses mediated oxidative stress, plants use the enzymatic antioxidant system, which includes, SOD, APX, POD, CAT, glutathione reductase (GR), monodehydroascorbate reductase (MDHAR), dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR), glutathione peroxidase (GPX), and glutathione S-transferase (GST). Previous studies have reported that Cr-induces the alteration in the production and accumulation of enzymatic antioxidant system for the regulation and scavenging Cr-induced ROS have been summarized in Table 2.

4. Chromium-Induced Lipid Peroxidation

Lipid peroxidation is initiated by the increased ROS accumulation through the decomposition of membrane lipids and proteins, and it is one of the primary reasons for abiotic stress-induced cell damages. Chromium stress has been reported for the induced ROS production, and it has been also reported for biological membrane damage. One of the lipid peroxidation products, called malondialdehyde (MDA), which is considered as an oxidative damage indicator, has been greatly studied in the heavy metals mediated damage of biological membrane, including Cr. Chromium-induced ROS mediated lipid peroxidation in various plant species, including economically important crops, has been summarized in Table 3.

5. Chromium-INDUCED DNA DAMAGE and Genotoxicity

Genotoxicity is one of the most serious threats of heavy metals toxicity to living organisms. DNA damage can have serious consequences, such as deregulation or mutagenesis of the cell replication process, leading to tumor formation, and ultimately cell death. Heavy metals cause DNA damage either by direct interaction with DNA or by induced ROS accumulation, which is considered to be one of the main internal causes of DNA damage (Figure 1). Heavy metals not only induce DNA damage, but also interrupt DNA damage repair mechanisms.

In contrast to other heavy metals, which are directly interacting with DNA, Cr-induces ROS mediated genotoxicity. Chromium-induced genotoxicity and carcinogenic effects are greatly investigated in yeast and animal cells. Its carcinogenic effects have been also reported in the workers, working in the Cr mines and Cr consuming industries. In vivo and in vitro investigations revealed that Cr(VI) produces various types of structural alterations in genetic materials, including inter-DNA strand cross-links, DNA chromosomal protein cross-links, and nucleotide strand breaks.

Chromium-DNA adducts (association of Cr with phosphodiester backbone of DNA), which are mainly reported in mammalian cells, being considered the primary cause of Cr(VI) induced mutagenicity. Cr(VI)-mediated genotoxicity has been reported in humans, rats, fish, fish cell lines, yeast, and bacteria. Some studies have reported that Cr(III) is also interacting with DNA to form a covalent bond with the phosphate backbone. Cr(III) also interacts with the DNA base pairs’ stacking mode, which leads to DNA lesion, cleavage, and the DNA single/double-strand breakage. Cr(VI)-induced ROS mediates these various DNA degradations. The current study reviews chromium-induced chromosomal fragmentation and bridging, alteration in DNA methylation, DNA mutation, increase in percent tail DNA, tail moment, and percent DNA damage in tail length, chromosome aberrations or micronuclei formations, DNA inter/intrastrand crosslinks, protein-DNA crosslinks, DNA-single/double-strand breaks, DNA adducts, DNA transcription, and replication dysfunction, abnormal DNA repair mechanisms, changes in signaling pathways for survival, genomic instability, oxidized bases, instability of microsatellites, and genetic/epigenetic alteration in different plant species t (Table 4).

6.1. Cr-Induced Necrosis and Cellular Injury

Chromium-induced cytotoxicity affects essential micronutrient absorption, lipid peroxidation, cell cycle arrest and ultimate cell death in plants. Toxic Cr levels also mediate the stomatal abnormalities, such as the decreased size of stomatal aperture, swelling of guard cells, changes in membrane permeability level, ion flux, and osmotic pressure. These stomatal aberrations significantly influence the a, b, and total chlorophyll contents, stomatal conductance, photosynthetic rate, respiration, and transpiration rate. Trichomes, which are unicellular outgrowths on the leaf, play a defensive role in plants under stress conditions. Metal ions’ active transport regulates the number and distribution of trichomes, and an increased trichome number has been noticed in the plants exposed to toxic Cr(VI) levels.

Exposure to high Cr-concentration causes mitochondrial damages, such as outer membrane rupture, swelling, deformed or altered internal cristae, dense electron accumulated materials, and spherical morphology. It has been also reported that mitochondria were underdeveloped in the Brassica napus seedlings that were exposed to 400 μM Cr as compared seedlings exposed to control conditions. The ultrastructural investigations also revealed that Cr(VI) stress alters plastid structure, more specifically, chloroplast, with a spherical and contracted morphology. The irregular shape and size of the chloroplast with contained large plastoglobuli and starch grains were reported in Spirodela poyrhiza seedlings that were exposed to high Cr(VI)-level. Cell membrane injury, disruption of cytoplasm, and vacuole upon Cr exposure are frequently reported. Table 5 summarizes the ultrastructural changes reported in the different plant species exposed to Cr-stress.

6.2. Electron-Dense Material Deposition in the Subcellular Compartments

Plants restrict the accumulation of heavy metals in the less sensitive organelles to avoid damage to the more sensitive organelles at the cellular level. The precipitation of electron-dense granules in subcellular compartments, especially in the cell wall, is the first line cellular defense mechanism, against toxic heavy metals. The electron-dense deposition in the interspace between the cell wall and cell membrane, vacuoles, plastids, between the cisternae of endoplasmic reticulum, and cytoplasm in the seedlings of Arabidopsis that were exposed to Cr(VI) have been previously reported. The deposition of electron-dense material in the pectic middle lamella instead of cellulosic/hemicellulosic components of Arabidopsis root tip cells has been also reported.

There is a prominent difference in the degree of Cr(VI)-induced damages among the different cellular compartments of plants. The cellular compartments, such as mitochondria, plastids, Golgi bodies, and vacuoles, were severe; cytoplasm, cell membrane, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) were mild; cell wall and nuclei were moderately damaged in the seedlings of Arabidopsis that were exposed to high Cr(VI) levels, as shown in Table 5.

7. Chromium-Mediated Changes in Photosynthesis and Photosynthetic Apparatus

Various heavy metals that influence plant biochemical, physiological, and metabolic processes affect photosynthesis and photosynthetic apparatus, leading to reduced plant growth and yield. The effect of Cr on the photosynthesis and photosynthetic apparatus has been greatly studied in different plant species, and it mainly influences the enzymatic activities, electron transport chain, CO2 fixation, photosynthetic phosphorylation, and structure of plastids. In various plant species Cr-reduced chlorophyll contents, carotenoids, and photosynthetic activities have been greatly investigated, as summarized in Table 6. The structural changes in the chloroplast could be one of the factors that are involved in the defective photosynthesis. Chromium-induced chloroplast ultrastructural changes mediate the suppression of photosynthesis in various plant species, as summarized in Table 5. Chromium-reduced alterations in the volume and auto-fluorescence of chloroplast, altered thylakoid arrangement, chloroplast membrane distortion, and negatively affected light/dark reactions have also been reported. Electron transport chain inhibition might be due to the Cr-induced redox changes in the Fe and Cu carriers or binding of Cr to cytochrome groups to inhibit its oxidative activity.

Furthermore, high Cr-level mediates ROS accumulation, which is an alternative sink for the electron, being involved in the suppression of photosynthesis. Heavy metals-induced ROS modulated alteration in the photosynthesis and photosynthetic machinery is intensely studied. Destabilization and degradation of antenna complex proteins, Mg+ substitutions with H+ ion, and thylakoid membrane damage are the main steps in ROS assisted leaf pigment-protein structure and function retardation. The Cr(VI)-induced degradation of a chlorophyll biosynthesis key enzyme delta-aminolaevulinic acid dehydratase, and its competing capability with Mg and Fe translocation to leaves are involved in the decreased photosynthetic pigments and photosynthesis. High Cr-level in the soil greatly influences macro/micronutrient uptake. As Cr has no specific uptake channels, it is competing with essential elements for the uptake channels.

8. Strategies to Overcome Cr-Uptake and Phytotoxicity

Chromium (III) has an essential role in the human metabolic process. However, none of the Cr species have been reported to be essential in plants, thus there is no specialized mechanism for Cr-uptake in plants. In plants, Cr-uptake, which depends on the Cr-type and plant species, is carried out through essential nutrients uptake channels. Plants uptake Cr(III) by passive mechanism, while the uptake of Cr(VI), which has a structural resemblance with sulfate and phosphate, takes palace by the active mechanism through sulfate and phosphate channels. The restriction of Cr(VI)-uptake and no change in Cr(III)-uptake by the treatment of exogenous metabolic inhibitors confirmed the active and passive uptake mechanisms of these Cr species, respectively. The molecular mechanism for Cr uptake and translocation is elusive and further studies are required.

Heavy metal ATPase (HMA), cation diffusion facilitator (CDF), superfamily of ATP binding cassette (ABC), natural resistance-associated macrophage protein (NRAMP), and ZRT IRT-like proteins (ZIP) are some of the gene families that are involved in the transportation of metals and heavy metals in plants. Further investigations regarding the possible role of these gene families in Cr-uptake and translocation will increase our understanding of the Cr-transportation mechanism in plants. Some of the studies reported that Cr is sharing the iron, sulfate, and phosphate transport pathways in plants. Thus, plants that are exposed to a toxic level of Cr-concentrations are also experiencing starvation of essential elements. As Cr-competes with some essential metals for the uptake, these essential elements enriched environment can reduce Cr-uptake, transport, and toxicity in plants.

Iron enriched growth medium significantly reduced Cr(VI)-uptake and translocation in plants. The pretreatment of seeds with salicylic acid, application of auxin and ethylene inhibitors to growth media, treatment of polyamine-brassinosteroid, 24-epibrassinolide, and plant growth-promoting bacteria reduce Cr-uptake, translocation, and toxicity. The natural selection of Cr-tolerant varieties, conventional breeding, and targeted genes mutation can be used for the control of Cr-phytotoxicity and damage to yield of economically important crops.

9. Conclusions

Plants exposed to toxic Cr-level mediate high ROS accumulation by either oxidation and interconversion of one Cr form to other or by the inhibition enzymatic antioxidant system. Cr-induced ROS mediates DNA damage and genotoxicity, cytotoxicity, ultrastructural damages, and alteration in photosynthesis and photosynthetic apparatus. These alterations include necrosis, programmed cell death, cell cycle arrest, and suppression of cell division that ultimately reduce plant growth, development, and yield, as shown in Figure 1.

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    Tripathi D.K., Singh V.P., Prasad S.M., Chauhan D.K., Dubey N.K. Silicon nanoparticles (SiNp) alleviate chromium(VI) phytotoxicity in Pisum sativum (L.) seedlings. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 2015;96:189-198.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.plaphy.2015.07.026

  45. 45.

    Patnaik A.R., Achary V.M.M., Panda B.B. Chromium(VI)-induced hormesis and genotoxicity are mediated through oxidative stress in root cells of Allium cepa L. Plant Growth Regul. 2013;71:157-170.

    Not in our library10.1007/s10725-013-9816-5

  46. 46.

    Kovacik J., Babula P., Klejdus B., Hedbavny J. Chromium Uptake and Consequences for Metabolism and Oxidative Stress in Chamomile Plants. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2013;61:7864-7873.

    Not in our library10.1021/jf401575a

  47. 47.

    Eleftheriou E.P., Adamakis I.-D.S., Fatsiou M., Panteris E. Hexavalent chromium disrupts mitosis by stabilizing microtubules in Lens culinaris root tip cells. Physiol. Plant. 2013;147:169-180.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1399-3054.2012.01652.x

  48. 48.
    Chromium stress mitigation by polyamine-brassinosteroid application involves phytohormonal and physiological strategies in Raphanus sativus L. · 2012
    Not checked
  49. 49.
    Influence of chromium salts on increased lipid peroxidation and differential pattern in antioxidant metabolism in Pistia stratiotes L · 2010
    Not checked
  50. 50.

    Gill S.S., Tuteja N. Reactive oxygen species and antioxidant machinery in abiotic stress tolerance in crop plants. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 2010;48:909-930.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.plaphy.2010.08.016

  51. 51.

    Zhang M., Smith J.A.C., Harberd N.P., Jiang C. The regulatory roles of ethylene and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in plant salt stress responses. Plant Mol. Biol. 2016;91:651-659.

    Not in our library10.1007/s11103-016-0488-1

  52. 52.

    Pourrut B., Shahid M., Douay F., Dumat C., Pinelli E. Molecular mechanisms involved in lead uptake, toxicity and detoxification in higher plants. Heavy Metal Stress in Plants. 2013;121-147.

    Not in our library

  53. 53.

    Shahid M., Austruy A., Echevarria G., Arshad M., Sanaullah M., Aslam M., Nadeem M., Nasim W., Dumat C. EDTA-enhanced phytoremediation of heavy metals: A review. Soil Sediment Contam. Int. J. 2014;23:389-416.

    Not in our library10.1080/15320383.2014.831029

  54. 54.

    Panda S.K. Chromium-mediated oxidative stress and ultrastructural changes in root cells of developing rice seedlings. J. Plant Physiol. 2007;164:1419-1428.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.jplph.2007.01.012

  55. 55.

    Singh H.P., Mahajan P., Kaur S., Batish D.R., Kohli R.K. Chromium toxicity and tolerance in plants. Environ. Chem. Lett. 2013;11:229-254.

    Not in our library10.1007/s10311-013-0407-5

  56. 56.

    Kim Y.-H., Park S.C., Yun B.-W., Kwak S.-S. Overexpressing sweetpotato peroxidase gene swpa4 affects nitric oxide production by activating the expression of reactive oxygen species- and nitric oxide-related genes in tobacco. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 2017;120:52-60.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.plaphy.2017.09.023

  57. 57.

    Ali I., Jan M., Wakeel A., Azizullah A., Liu B., Islam F., Ali A., Daud M.K., Liu Y., Gan Y. Biochemical responses and ultrastructural changes in ethylene insensitive mutants of Arabidopsis thialiana subjected to bisphenol A exposure. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2017;144:62-71.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ecoenv.2017.06.015

  58. 58.

    Mahmud J.A.L., Hasanuzzaman M., Nahar K., Rahman A., Hossain M.S., Fujita M. gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) confers chromium stress tolerance in Brassica juncea L. by modulating the antioxidant defense and glyoxalase systems. Ecotoxicology. 2017;26:675-690.

    Not in our library10.1007/s10646-017-1800-9

  59. 59.

    Gonzalez A., Mar Gil-Diaz M., Pinilla P., Carmen Lobo M. Impact of Cr and Zn on Growth, Biochemical and Physiological Parameters, and Metal Accumulation by Wheat and Barley Plants. Water Air Soil Pollut. 2017;228:419.

    Not in our library10.1007/s11270-017-3507-1

  60. 60.

    Ahmad R., Ali S., Hannan F., Rizwan M., Iqbal M., Hassan Z., Akram N.A., Maqbool S., Abbas F. Promotive role of 5-aminolevulinic acid on chromium-induced morphological, photosynthetic, and oxidative changes in cauliflower (Brassica oleracea botrytis L.). Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2017;24:8814-8824.

    Not in our library10.1007/s11356-017-8603-7

  61. 61.

    Zhu X., Hou G., Ru G., Zhang L., Wu X., Liu G. Accumulation and antioxidant properties of chromium stress in Pennisetum alopecuroides. J. Henan Agric. Univ. 2017;51:330-334.

    Not in our library

  62. 62.

    Yilmaz S.H., Kaplan M., Temizgul R., Yilmaz S. Antioxidant enzyme response of sorghum plant upon exposure to Aluminum, Chromium and Lead heavy metals. Turk. J. Biochem. 2017;42:503-512.

    Not in our library10.1515/tjb-2016-0112

  63. 63.

    Kanwar M.K., Poonam S.P., Bhardwaj R. Involvement of Asada-Halliwell Pathway During Phytoremediation of Chromium(VI) in Brassica juncea L. Plants. Int. J. Phytoremediat. 2015;17:1237-1243.

    Not in our library10.1080/15226514.2015.1058326

  64. 64.

    Singh M., Kushwaha B.K., Singh S., Kumar V., Singh V.P., Prasad S.M. Sulphur alters chromium(VI) toxicity in Solarium melongena seedlings: Role of sulphur assimilation and sulphur-containing antioxidants. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 2017;112:183-192.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.plaphy.2016.12.024

  65. 65.

    Anjum S.A., Ashraf U., Khan I., Tanveer M., Saleem M.F., Wang L. Aluminum and Chromium Toxicity in Maize: Implications for Agronomic Attributes, Net Photosynthesis, Physio-Biochemical Oscillations, and Metal Accumulation in Different Plant Parts. Water Air Soil Pollut. 2016;227:326.

    Not in our library10.1007/s11270-016-3013-x

  66. 66.

    Ding H., Zhu X., Liu H., Chen Y., Liang J. Hexavalent chromium(Cr~(6+)) induced oxidative damage to maize (Zea mays L.) root tip cells. J. Yangzhou Univ. 2011;32:28-32.

    Not in our library

  67. 67.

    Ding H., Wang G., Lou L., Lv J. Physiological responses and tolerance of kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.) exposed to chromium. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2016;133:509-518.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ecoenv.2016.08.007

  68. 68.

    Huda A.K.M.N., Swaraz A.M., Abu Reza M., Haque M.A., Kabir A.H. Remediation of Chromium Toxicity Through Exogenous Salicylic Acid in Rice (Oryza sativa L.). Water Air Soil Pollut. 2016;227:278.

    Not in our library10.1007/s11270-016-2985-x

  69. 69.

    Cao F., Wang N., Zhang M., Dai H., Dawood M., Zhang G., Wu F. Comparative study of alleviating effects of GSH, Se and Zn under combined contamination of cadmium and chromium in rice (Oryza sativa). Biometals. 2013;26:297-308.

    Not in our library10.1007/s10534-013-9611-9

  70. 70.

    Jabeen N., Abbas Z., Iqbal M., Rizwan M., Jabbar A., Farid M., Ali S., Ibrahim M., Abbas F. Glycinebetaine mediates chromium tolerance in mung bean through lowering of Cr uptake and improved antioxidant system. Arch. Agron. Soil Sci. 2016;62:648-662.

    Not in our library10.1080/03650340.2015.1082032

  71. 71.

    Zhang H., Yang W., Wang Q., Sun J. The Sub-cellular Chromium(Cr~(6+))Distribution and Tolerance Mechanism to Chromium Stress in Different Tolerant Brassica chinensis L. Cultivars. Acta Bot. Boreali-Occident. Sin. 2016;36:954-963.

    Not in our library

  72. 72.

    Shirong Z., Shuyi L., Xiaodong D., Fangbai L., Chuanping L., Xinrong L., Rongping W. Silicon mediated the detoxification of Cr on pakchoi (Brassica chinensis L.) in Cr-contaminated soil. J. Food Agric. Environ. 2013;11:814-819.

    Not in our library

  73. 73.

    Tian B., Zhang Y., Zhang L., Ma X., Jin Z., Liu Z., Liu D., Pei Y. Effects of cadmium or chromium on growth and NADPH oxidase and antioxidant enzyme system of foxtail millet seedlings. J. Agro-Environ. Sci. 2016;35:240-246.

    Not in our library

  74. 74.

    UdDin I., Bano A., Masood S. Chromium toxicity tolerance of Solanum nigrum L. and Parthenium hysterophorus L. plants with reference to ion pattern, antioxidation activity and root exudation. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2015;113:271-278.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ecoenv.2014.12.014

  75. 75.

    Chatterjee J., Kumar P., Sharma P.N., Tewari R.K. Chromium toxicity induces oxidative stress in turnip. Indian J. Plant Physiol. 2015;20:220-226.

    Not in our library10.1007/s40502-015-0163-6

  76. 76.

    Afshan S., Ali S., Bharwana S.A., Rizwan M., Farid M., Abbas F., Ibrahim M., Mehmood M.A., Abbasi G.H. Citric acid enhances the phytoextraction of chromium, plant growth, and photosynthesis by alleviating the oxidative damages in Brassica napus L. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2015;22:11679-11689.

    Not in our library10.1007/s11356-015-4396-8

  77. 77.

    Daud M.K., Mei L., Variath M.T., Ali S., Li C., Rafiq M.T., Zhu S.J. Chromium(VI) Uptake and Tolerance Potential in Cotton Cultivars: Effect on Their Root Physiology, Ultramorphology, and Oxidative Metabolism. Biomed Res. Int. 2014;2014.

    Not in our library10.1155/2014/975946

  78. 78.

    Islam M.K., Khanam M.S., Lee S.Y., Alam I., Huh M.R. The interaction of arsenic (As) and chromium (Cr) influences growth and antioxidant status in tossa jute (Corchorus olitorius). Plant Omics. 2014;7:499-509.

    Not in our library

  79. 79.

    Yildiz M., Terzi H., Bingul N. Protective role of hydrogen peroxide pretreatment on defense systems and BnMP1 gene expression in Cr(VI)-stressed canola seedlings. Ecotoxicology. 2013;22:1303-1312.

    Not in our library10.1007/s10646-013-1117-2

  80. 80.

    Sayantan D. Shardendu. Amendment in phosphorus levels moderate the chromium toxicity in Raphanus sativus L. as assayed by antioxidant enzymes activities. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2013;95:161-170.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ecoenv.2013.05.037

  81. 81.

    Yildiz M., Terzi H., Cenkci S., Yildiz B. Chromium(VI)-Induced Alterations in 2-D Protein Profiles and Antioxidant Defence Systems of Barley Cultivars. Hacet. J. Biol. Chem. 2012;40:257-265.

    Not in our library

  82. 82.

    Yu X.-Z., Lin Y.-J., Fan W.-J., Lu M.-R. The role of exogenous proline in amelioration of lipid peroxidation in rice seedlings exposed to Cr(VI). Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 2017;123:106-112.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ibiod.2017.06.010

  83. 83.

    Smaoui-Jardak M., Kriaa W., Maalej M., Zouari M., Kamoun L., Trabelsi W., Ben Abdallah F., Elloumi N. Effect of the phosphogypsum amendment of saline and agricultural soils on growth, productivity and antioxidant enzyme activities of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.). Ecotoxicology. 2017;26:1089-1104.

    Not in our library10.1007/s10646-017-1836-x

  84. 84.

    Zeng F., Qiu B., Wu X., Niu S., Wu F., Zhang G. Glutathione-Mediated Alleviation of Chromium Toxicity in Rice Plants. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 2012;148:255-263.

    Not in our library10.1007/s12011-012-9362-4

  85. 85.

    Zeng F.-R., Zhao F.-S., Qiu B.-Y., Ouyang Y.-N., Wu F.-B., Zhang G.-P. Alleviation of Chromium Toxicity by Silicon Addition in Rice Plants. Agric. Sci. China. 2011;10:1188-1196.

    Not in our library10.1016/s1671-2927(11)60109-0

  86. 86.

    Silvina Aran D., Alfredo Harguinteguy C., Fernandez-Cirelli A., Luisa Pignata M. Phytoextraction of Pb, Cr, Ni, and Zn using the aquatic plant Limnobium laevigatum and its potential use in the treatment of wastewater. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2017;24:18295-18308.

    Not in our library10.1007/s11356-017-9464-9

  87. 87.

    Balal R.M., Shahid M.A., Vincent C., Zotarelli L., Liu G., Mattson N.S., Rathinasabapathi B., Martinez-Nicolas J.J., Garcia-Sanchez F. Kinnow mandarin plants grafted on tetraploid rootstocks are more tolerant to Cr-toxicity than those grafted on its diploids one. Environ. Exp. Bot. 2017;140:8-18.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.envexpbot.2017.05.011

  88. 88.

    Ashfaque F., Inam A., Inam A., Iqbal S., Sahay S. Response of silicon on metal accumulation, photosynthetic inhibition and oxidative stress in chromium-induced mustard (Brassica juncea L.). S. Afr. J. Bot. 2017;111:153-160.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.sajb.2017.03.002

  89. 89.

    Singh D., Agnihotri A., Seth C.S. Interactive effects of EDTA and oxalic acid on chromium uptake, translocation and photosynthetic attributes in Indian mustard (Brassica juncea L. var. Varuna). Curr. Sci. 2017;112:2034-2042.

    Not in our library10.18520/cs/v112/i10/2034-2042

  90. 90.

    Sinha V., Pakshirajan K., Manikandan N.A., Chaturvedi R. Kinetics, biochemical and factorial analysis of chromium uptake in a multi-ion system by Tradescantia pallida (Rose) D. R. Hunt. Int. J. Phytoremediat. 2017;19:1007-1016.

    Not in our library10.1080/15226514.2017.1319323

  91. 91.

    De Oliveira L.M., Gress J., De J., Rathinasabapathi B., Marchi G., Chen Y., Ma L.Q. Sulfate and chromate increased each other’s uptake and translocation in As-hyperaccumulator Pteris vittata. Chemosphere. 2016;147:36-43.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.12.088

  92. 92.

    Jain R., Singh S.P., Singh A., Singh S., Tripathi P., Chandra A., Solomon S. Study on physio-biochemical attributes and metallothionein gene expression affected by chromium(VI) in sugarcane (Saccharum spp. hybrid). J. Environ. Biol. 2016;37:375-382.

    Not in our library

  93. 93.

    Terzi H., Yildiz M. Interactive effects of sulfur and chromium on antioxidative defense systems and BnMP1 gene expression in canola (Brassica napus L.) cultivars differing in Cr(VI) tolerance. Ecotoxicology. 2015;24:1171-1182.

    Not in our library10.1007/s10646-015-1468-y

  94. 94.

    Terzi H., Yildiz M. Variations in Chromium Tolerance and Accumulation among Canola (Brassica napus L.) Cultivars. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2014;93:113-119.

    Not in our library10.1007/s00128-014-1255-0

  95. 95.

    Sinha P., Shukla A.K., Sharma Y.K. Amelioration of Heavy-Metal Toxicity in Cauliflower by Application of Salicylic Acid. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 2015;46:1309-1319.

    Not in our library10.1080/00103624.2015.1033543

  96. 96.

    Prado C., Prado F.E., Pagano E., Rosa M. Differential Effects of Cr(VI) on the Ultrastructure of Chloroplast and Plasma Membrane of Salvinia minima Growing in Summer and Winter. Relationships with Lipid Peroxidation, Electrolyte Leakage, Photosynthetic Pigments, and Carbohydrates. Water Air Soil Pollut. 2015;226:8.

    Not in our library10.1007/s11270-014-2284-3

  97. 97.

    Sinha V., Pakshirajan K., Chaturvedi R. Chromium(VI) Accumulation and Tolerance by Tradescantia pallida: Biochemical and Antioxidant Study. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 2014;173:2297-2306.

    Not in our library10.1007/s12010-014-1035-7

  98. 98.

    Liu C., Du W., Cai H., Jia Z., Dong H. Trivalent chromium pretreatment alleviates the toxicity of oxidative damage in wheat plants exposed to hexavalent chromium. Acta Physiol. Plant. 2014;36:787-794.

    Not in our library10.1007/s11738-013-1456-x

  99. 99.

    Sharmin S.A., Alam I., Kim K.-H., Kim Y.-G., Kim P.J., Bahk J.D., Lee B.-H. Chromium-induced physiological and proteomic alterations in roots of Miscanthus sinensis. Plant Sci. 2012;187:113-126.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.plantsci.2012.02.002

  100. 100.

    Pesko M., Kral’ova K., Blasko J. Phytotoxic Effects of trivalent Chromium on Rapeseed Plants. Fresenius Environ. Bull. 2012;21:761-768.

    Not in our library

  101. 101.

    Thompson C.M., Fedorov Y., Brown D.D., Suh M., Proctor D.M., Kuriakose L., Haws L.C., Harris M.A. Assessment of Cr(VI)-Induced Cytotoxicity and Genotoxicity Using High Content Analysis. PLoS ONE. 2012;7:e42720.

    Not in our library10.1371/journal.pone.0042720

  102. 102.

    Wakeman T.P., Yang A., Dalal N.S., Boohaker R.J., Zeng Q., Ding Q., Xu B. DNA mismatch repair protein Mlh1 is required for tetravalent chromium intermediate-induced DNA damage. Oncotarget. 2017;8:83975-83985.

    Not in our library10.18632/oncotarget.20150

  103. 103.

    Chiu A., Shi X.L., Lee W.K.P., Hill R., Wakeman T.P., Katz A., Xu B., Dalal N.S., Robertson J.D., Chen C., et al. Review of Chromium (VI) Apoptosis, Cell-Cycle-Arrest, and Carcinogenesis. J. Environ. Sci. Health Part C Environ. Carcinog. Ecotoxicol. Rev. 2010;28:188-230.

    Not in our library10.1080/10590501.2010.504980

  104. 104.

    Chen T.L., LaCerte C., Wise S.S., Holmes A., Martino J., Wise J.P., Thompson W.D., Wise J.P. Comparative cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of particulate and soluble hexavalent chromium in human and sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) skin cells. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. C Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2012;155:143-150.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.cbpc.2011.03.011

  105. 105.

    Fang Z., Zhao M., Zhen H., Chen L., Shi P., Huang Z. Genotoxicity of Tri- and Hexavalent Chromium Compounds In Vivo and Their Modes of Action on DNA Damage In Vitro. PLoS ONE. 2014;9:e103194.

    Not in our library10.1371/journal.pone.0103194

  106. 106.

    Xia W., Hu J., Zhang B., Li Y., Wise J.P., Bassig B.A., Zhou A., Savitz D.A., Xiong C., Zhao J., et al. A case-control study of maternal exposure to chromium and infant low birth weight in China. Chemosphere. 2016;144:1484-1489.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.10.006

  107. 107.

    Blasiak J., Kowalik J. A comparison of the in vitro genotoxicity of tri- and hexavalent chromium. Mutat. Res. Genet. Toxicol. Environ. Mutagenesis. 2000;469:135-145.

    Not in our library10.1016/s1383-5718(00)00065-6

  108. 108.

    Meng X., Fang Z., Wei H., Yang Z., Huang Z. Genotoxicity investigation of tri-and hexavalent chromium using a yeast SUP4-o mutation assay. Carcinog. Teratog. Mutagenesis. 2017;29:65-69.

    Not in our library

  109. 109.

    Salnikow K., Zhitkovich A. Genetic and epigenetic mechanisms in metal carcinogenesis and cocarcinogenesis: Nickel, arsenic, and chromium. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 2008;21:28-44.

    Not in our library10.1021/tx700198a

  110. 110.

    Alimba C.G., Dhillon V., Bakare A.A., Fenech M. Genotoxicity and cytotoxicity of chromium, copper, manganese and lead, and their mixture in WIL2-NS human B lymphoblastoid cells is enhanced by folate depletion. Mutat. Res. Genet. Toxicol. Environ. Mutagenesis. 2016;798:35-47.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.mrgentox.2016.02.002

  111. 111.

    Kumari V., Yadav A., Haq I., Kumar S., Bharagava R.N., Singh S.K., Raj A. Genotoxicity evaluation of tannery effluent treated with newly isolated hexavalent chromium reducing Bacillus cereuss. J. Environ. Manag. 2016;183:204-211.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.08.017

  112. 112.

    Bordeerat N.K. Evaluation of genotoxicity in Welders exposed to hexavalent chromium. Environ. Mol. Mutagenesis. 2017;58:S65-S66.

    Not in our library

  113. 113.

    Taju G., Majeed S.A., Nambi K.S.N., Hameed A.S.S. Application of fish cell lines for evaluating the chromium induced cytotoxicity, genotoxicity and oxidative stress. Chemosphere. 2017;184:1-12.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.05.151

  114. 114.

    Zhang Y., Zhang Y., Zhong C., Xiao F. Cr(VI) induces premature senescence through ROS-mediated p53 pathway in L-02 hepatocytes. Sci. Rep. 2016;6:34578.

    Not in our library10.1038/srep34578

  115. 115.

    Kim Linh N., Hoang Anh N., Richter O., Minh Thinh P., Van Phuoc N. Ecophysiological responses of young mangrove species Rhizophora apiculata (Blume) to different chromium contaminated environments. Sci. Total Environ. 2017;574:369-380.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.09.063

  116. 116.

    Suraweera D.D., Groom T., Taylor P.W.J., Jayasinghe C.S., Nicolas M.E. Dynamics of flower, achene and trichome development governs the accumulation of pyrethrins in pyrethrum (Tanacetum cinerariifolium) under irrigated and dryland conditions. Ind. Crop. Prod. 2017;109:123-133.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.indcrop.2017.07.042

  117. 117.

    Vadde B.V.L., Challa K.R., Nath U. The TCP4 transcription factor regulates trichome cell differentiation by directly activating GLABROUS INFLORESCENCE STEMS in Arabidopsis thaliana. Plant J. 2018;93:259-269.

    Not in our library10.1111/tpj.13772

  118. 118.

    Speranza A., Ferri P., Battistelli M., Falcieri E., Crinelli R., Scoccianti V. Both trivalent and hexavalent chromium strongly alter in vitro germination and ultrastructure of kiwifruit pollen. Chemosphere. 2007;66:1165-1174.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.chemosphere.2006.08.019

  119. 119.

    Mangabeira P.A., Ferreira A.S., de Almeida A.-A.F., Fernandes V.F., Lucena E., Souza V.L., dos Santos Junior A.J., Oliveira A.H., Grenier-Loustalot M.F., Barbier F., et al. Compartmentalization and ultrastructural alterations induced by chromium in aquatic macrophytes. Biometals. 2011;24:1017-1026.

    Not in our library10.1007/s10534-011-9459-9

  120. 120.

    Gill R.A., Ali B., Yang S., Tong C., Islam F., Gill M.B., Mwamba T.M., Ali S., Mao B., Liu S., et al. Reduced Glutathione Mediates Phone-Ultrastrcture, Kinome and Transportome in Chromium-Induced Brassica napus L. Front. Plant Sci. 2017;8:2037.

    Not in our library10.3389/fpls.2017.02037

  121. 121.

    Andosch A., Hoeftberger M., Luetz C., Luetz-Meindl U. Subcellular Sequestration and Impact of Heavy Metals on the Ultrastructure and Physiology of the Multicellular Freshwater Alga Desmidium swartzii. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015;16:10389-10410.

    Not in our library10.3390/ijms160510389

  122. 122.

    Bukhari S.A.H., Zheng W., Xie L., Zhang G., Shang S., Wu F. Cr-induced changes in leaf protein profile, ultrastructure and photosynthetic traits in the two contrasting tobacco genotypes. Plant Growth Regul. 2016;79:147-156.

    Not in our library10.1007/s10725-015-0120-4

  123. 123.

    Bukhari S.A.H., Wang R., Wang W., Ahmed I.M., Zheng W., Cao F. Genotype-dependent effect of exogenous 24-epibrassinolide on chromium-induced changes in ultrastructure and physicochemical traits in tobacco seedlings. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2016;23:18229-18238.

    Not in our library10.1007/s11356-016-7017-2

  124. 124.

    El Fels L., Hafidi M., Silvestre J., Kallerhoff J., Merlina G., Pinelli E. Efficiency of co-composting process to remove genotoxicity from sewage sludge contaminated with hexavalent chromium. Ecol. Eng. 2015;82:355-360.

    Not in our library

  125. 125.

    Fargasova A. Plants as models for chromium and nickel risk assessment. Ecotoxicology. 2012;21:1476-1483.

    Not in our library10.1007/s10646-012-0901-8

  126. 126.

    Chandra S., Chauhan L.K.S., Pande P.N., Gupta S.K. Cytogenetic effects of leachates from tannery solid waste on the somatic cells of Vicia faba. Environ. Toxicol. 2004;19:129-133.

    Not in our library10.1002/tox.20005

  127. 127.

    Rodriguez E., Azevedo R., Fernandes P., Santos C. Cr(VI) Induces DNA Damage, Cell Cycle Arrest and Polyploidization: A How Cytometric and Comet Assay Study in Pisum sativum. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 2011;24:1040-1047.

    Not in our library10.1021/tx2001465

  128. 128.

    Hemachandra C.K., Pathiratne A. Assessing Toxicity of Copper, Cadmium and Chromium Levels Relevant to Discharge Limits of Industrial Effluents into Inland Surface Waters Using Common Onion, Allium cepa Bioassay. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2015;94:199-203.

    Not in our library10.1007/s00128-014-1373-8

  129. 129.

    Qian X.-W. Mutagenic effects of chromium trioxide on root tip cells of Vicia faba. J. Zhejiang Univ. Sci. 2004;5:1570-1576.

    Not in our library10.1631/jzus.2004.1570

  130. 130.

    Truta E., Mihai C., Gherghel D., Vochita G. Assessment of the Cytogenetic Damage Induced by Chromium Short-Term Exposure in Root Tip Meristems of Barley Seedlings. Water Air Soil Pollut. 2014;225:1933.

    Not in our library10.1007/s11270-014-1933-x

  131. 131.

    Miadokova E., Duhova V., Vlckova V., Sladkova L., Sucha V., Vlcek D. Genetic risk assessment of acid waste water containing heavy metals. Gen. Physiol. Biophys. 1999;18:92-98.

    Not in our library

  132. 132.

    Labra M., Grassi F., Imazio S., Di Fabio T., Citterio S., Sgorbati S., Agradi E. Genetic and DNA-methylation changes induced by potassium dichromate in Brassica napus L. Chemosphere. 2004;54:1049-1058.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.chemosphere.2003.10.024

  133. 133.

    Labra M., Di Fabio T., Grassi F., Regondi S.M.G., Bracale M., Vannini C., Agradi E. AFLP analysis as biomarker of exposure to organic and inorganic genotoxic substances in plants. Chemosphere. 2003;52:1183-1188.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0045-6535(03)00367-9

  134. 134.

    Gill R.A., Hu X.Q., Ali B., Yang C., Shou J.Y., Wu Y.Y., Zhou W.J. Genotypic variation of the responses to chromium toxicity in four oilseed rape cultivars. Biol. Plant. 2014;58:539-550.

    Not in our library10.1007/s10535-014-0430-9

  135. 135.

    Qiu B., Zeng F., Cai S., Wu X., Haider S.I., Wu F., Zhang G. Alleviation of chromium toxicity in rice seedlings by applying exogenous glutathione. J. Plant Physiol. 2013;170:772-779.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.jplph.2013.01.016

  136. 136.

    Eleftheriou E.P., Adamakis I.-D.S., Melissa P. Effects of hexavalent chromium on microtubule organization, ER distribution and callose deposition in root tip cells of Allium cepa L. Protoplasma. 2012;249:401-416.

    Not in our library10.1007/s00709-011-0292-3

  137. 137.

    Montoya-Palomino W., Javier Pena-Salamanea E., Andres Torres-Rodriguez G. Ultraestructural changes induced by chromium(VI) in water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) leaves. Limnetica. 2015;34:85-94.

    Not in our library

  138. 138.

    Maleci L., Buffa G., Wahsha M., Bini C. Morphological changes induced by heavy metals in dandelion (Taraxacum officinale Web.) growing on mine soils. J. Soils Sediments. 2014;14:731-743.

    Not in our library10.1007/s11368-013-0823-y

  139. 139.

    Ali S., Farooq M.A., Yasmeen T., Hussain S., Arif M.S., Abbas F., Bharwana S.A., Zhang G. The influence of silicon on barley growth, photosynthesis and ultra-structure under chromium stress. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2013;89:66-72.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ecoenv.2012.11.015

  140. 140.

    Mangabeira P.A., de Almeida A.A.F., Souza V.L., dos Santos Junior A.J., Silva D.C., de Jesus R.M., Pirrone N. Ultrastructural damage in tomato plants exposed to chromium III. Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on Heavy Metals in the Environment. 2013;Volume 1.

    Not in our library

  141. 141.

    Hui C., Guo-Xin S.H.I., Qin-Song X.U., Wang H.-X., Yang H.-Y., Qiu-Hong P.A.N. Toxic Effects of Cr~(6+) on Chlorophyll Fluorescence Parameters, Antioxidant Systems and Ultrastructure of Potamogeton crispus. Bull. Bot. Res. 2009;29:559-564.

    Not in our library

  142. 142.

    Sruthi P., Shackira A.M., Puthur J.T. Heavy metal detoxification mechanisms in halophytes: An overview. Wetl. Ecol. Manag. 2017;25:129-148.

    Not in our library10.1007/s11273-016-9513-z

  143. 143.

    Yang C., Li W., Cao J., Meng F., Yu Y., Huang J., Jiang L., Liu M., Zhang Z., Chen X., et al. Activation of ethylene signaling pathways enhances disease resistance by regulating ROS and phytoalexin production in rice. Plant J. 2017;89:338-353.

    Not in our library10.1111/tpj.13388

  144. 144.

    Farias D.R., Hurd C.L., Eriksen R.S., Simioni C., Schmidt E., Bouzon Z.L., Macleod C.K. In situ assessment of Ulva australis as a monitoring and management tool for metal pollution. J. Appl. Phycol. 2017;29:2489-2502.

    Not in our library10.1007/s10811-017-1073-y

  145. 145.

    Farias D.R., Schmidt E., Simioni C., Bouzon Z.L., Hurd C.L., Eriksen R.S., Macleod C.K. Photosynthetic and ultrastructural responses of Ulva australis to Zn stress. Micron. 2017;103:45-52.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.micron.2017.09.010

  146. 146.

    Liu D., Zou J., Wang M., Jiang W. Hexavalent chromium uptake and its effects on mineral uptake, antioxidant defence system and photosynthesis in Amaranthus viridis L. Bioresour. Technol. 2008;99:2628-2636.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.biortech.2007.04.045

  147. 147.

    Anjum S.A., Ashraf U., Khan I., Saleem M.F., Wang L.C. Chromium toxicity induced alterations in growth, photosynthesis, gas exchange attributes and yield formation in maize. Pak. J. Agric. Sci. 2016;53:751-757.

    Not in our library

  148. 148.

    Pandey V., Dixit V., Shyam R. Chromium effect on ROS generation and detoxification in pea (Pisum sativum) leaf chloroplasts. Protoplasma. 2009;236:85-95.

    Not in our library10.1007/s00709-009-0061-8

  149. 149.

    Dixit V., Pandey V., Shyam R. Chromium ions inactivate electron transport and enhance superoxide generation in vivo in pea (Pisum sativum L. cv. Azad) root mitochondria. Plant Cell Environ. 2002;25:687-693.

    Not in our library10.1046/j.1365-3040.2002.00843.x

  150. 150.

    Yewalkar S.N., Dhumal K.N., Sainis J.K. Effect of chromate on photosynthesis in Cr(VI)-resistant Chlorella. Photosynthetica. 2013;51:565-573.

    Not in our library10.1007/s11099-013-0056-8

  151. 151.

    Cho D.-W., Song H., Schwartz F.W., Kim B., Jeon B.-H. The role of magnetite nanoparticles in the reduction of nitrate in groundwater by zero-valent iron. Chemosphere. 2015;125:41-49.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.01.019

  152. 152.

    El-Esawi M., Arthaut L.-D., Jourdan N., d’Harlingue A., Link J., Martino C.F., Ahmad M. Blue-light induced biosynthesis of ROS contributes to the signaling mechanism of Arabidopsis cryptochrome. Sci. Rep. 2017;7:13875.

    Not in our library10.1038/s41598-017-13832-z

  153. 153.

    Choudhary K.K., Agrawal S.B. Assessment of Fatty Acid Profile and Seed Mineral Nutrients of Two Soybean (Glycine max L.) Cultivars under Elevated Ultraviolet-B: Role of ROS, Pigments and Antioxidants. Photochem. Photobiol. 2016;92:134-143.

    Not in our library10.1111/php.12544

  154. 154.

    Dey S., Paul A.K. Evaluation of chromate reductase activity in the cell-free culture filtrate of Arthrobacter sp. SUK 1201 isolated from chromite mine overburden. Chemosphere. 2016;156:69-75.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.04.101

  155. 155.

    Gautam M., Singh A.K., Johri R.M. Effect of chromium toxicity on growth, chlorophyll and some macronutrients of Solanum lycopersicum and Solanum melongena. Indian J. Agric. Sci. 2014;84:1115-1123.

    Not in our library

  156. 156.

    Hammud H.H., Abbas I., Al-Khalili D. Kinetics and thermodynamics of chromate and phosphate uptake by polypyrrole: Batch and column studies. J. Incl. Phenom. Macrocycl. Chem. 2015;82:395-405.

    Not in our library10.1007/s10847-015-0502-2

  157. 157.

    Sheetal K.R., Singh S.D., Anand A., Prasad S. Heavy metal accumulation and effects on growth, biomass and physiological processes in mustard. Indian J. Plant Physiol. 2016;21:219-223.

    Not in our library10.1007/s40502-016-0221-8

  158. 158.

    Yasin M., Faisal M. Comparative Analysis of Tannery-Effluent Contaminated Soil and Mixed Culture Bacterial Inoculation on Helianthus annuus L. Growth. J. Chem. Soc. Pak. 2012;34:1573-1577.

    Not in our library

  159. 159.

    Li S., Huang H., Li Z., Li Z., He Z., Liang H. Chromium removal capability and photosynthetic characteristics of Cyperus alternifolius and Coix lacryma-jobi L. in vertical flow constructed wetland treated with hexavalent chromium bearing domestic sewage. Water Sci. Technol. 2017;76:2203-2212.

    Not in our library10.2166/wst.2017.396

  160. 160.

    Yasin M., Faisal M. Assessing the Phytotoxicity of Tannery Waste-Contaminated Soil on Zea mays (Lin) Growth. Pol. J. Environ. Stud. 2013;22:1871-1876.

    Not in our library

  161. 161.

    Revathi S., Subhashree V. Comparative Study of Hexavalent Chromium Induced Biochemical Changes With and Without EDTA in Sesbania grandiflora L. Pers. J. Agric. Sci. Technol. 2016;18:1289-1301.

    Not in our library

  162. 162.

    Dias M.C., Moutinho-Pereira J., Correia C., Monteiro C., Araujo M., Brueggemann W., Santos C. Physiological mechanisms to cope with Cr(VI) toxicity in lettuce: Can lettuce be used in Cr phytoremediation? Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2016;23:15627-15637.

    Not in our library10.1007/s11356-016-6735-9

  163. 163.

    Mathur S., Kalaji H.M., Jajoo A. Investigation of deleterious effects of chromium phytotoxicity and photosynthesis in wheat plant. Photosynthetica. 2016;54:185-192.

    Not in our library10.1007/s11099-016-0198-6

  164. 164.

    Wang B., Xiao J., Feng X., Gan L., Tang Y. Effects of Chromium stress on physiological and ecophysiological characteristics of male and female plants of Humulus scandens. Acta Pratacult. Sin. 2016;25:131-139.

    Not in our library

  165. 165.

    Reale L., Ferranti F., Mantilacci S., Corboli M., Aversa S., Landucci F., Baldisserotto C., Ferroni L., Pancaldi S., Venanzoni R. Cyto-histological and morpho-physiological responses of common duckweed (Lemna minor L.) to chromium. Chemosphere. 2016;145:98-105.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.11.047

  166. 166.

    Sheetal K.R., Singh S., Prasad S., Mina U., Datta S.P., Anand A. Physiological and biochemical responses of different vegetables to chromium. Biochem. Cell. Arch. 2015;15:421-425.

    Not in our library

  167. 167.

    Da Conceicao Gomes M.A., Hauser-Davis R.A., Suzuki M.S., Vitoria A.P. Plant chromium uptake and transport, physiological effects and recent advances in molecular investigations. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2017;140:55-64.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ecoenv.2017.01.042

  168. 168.

    Vernay P., Gauthier-Moussard C., Hitmi A. Interaction of bioaccumulation of heavy metal chromium with water relation, mineral nutrition and photosynthesis in developed leaves of Lolium perenne L. Chemosphere. 2007;68:1563-1575.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.chemosphere.2007.02.052

  169. 169.

    Dong J., Wu F., Huang R., Zang G. A chromium-tolerant plant growing in Cr-contaminated land. Int. J. Phytoremediation. 2007;9:167-179.

    Not in our library10.1080/15226510701375978

  170. 170.

    Mallick S., Sinam G., Mishra R.K., Sinha S. Interactive effects of Cr and Fe treatments on plants growth, nutrition and oxidative status in Zea mays L. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2010;73:987-995.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ecoenv.2010.03.004

  171. 171.

    Xu F., Deng J. Effects of Salicylic Acid on Germination of Soybean Seed under Chromium Stress. Soybean Sci. 2012;31:852-854.

    Not in our library

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