No retraction, correction or concern found when last checked on Oct 16, 2026.

The Gut-Brain Axis: How Microbiota and Host Inflammasome Influence Brain Physiology and Pathology

Andrina Rutsch, Johan B. Kantsjö, Francesca Ronchi

Frontiers in Immunology · 2020 · Review · CC BY

doi:10.3389/fimmu.2020.604179

Abstract

The human microbiota has a fundamental role in host physiology and pathology. Gut microbial alteration, also known as dysbiosis, is a condition associated not only with gastrointestinal disorders but also with diseases affecting other distal organs. Recently it became evident that the intestinal bacteria can affect the central nervous system (CNS) physiology and inflammation. The nervous system and the gastrointestinal tract are communicating through a bidirectional network of signaling pathways called the gut-brain axis, which consists of multiple connections, including the vagus nerve, the immune system, and bacterial metabolites and products. During dysbiosis, these pathways are dysregulated and associated with altered permeability of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and neuroinflammation. However, numerous mechanisms behind the impact of the gut microbiota in neuro-development and -pathogenesis remain poorly understood. There are several immune pathways involved in CNS homeostasis and inflammation. Among those, the inflammasome pathway has been linked to neuroinflammatory conditions such as multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases, but also anxiety and depressive-like disorders. The inflammasome complex assembles upon cell activation due to exposure to microbes, danger signals, or stress and lead to the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines (interleukin-1β and interleukin-18) and to pyroptosis. Evidences suggest that there is a reciprocal influence of microbiota and inflammasome activation in the brain. However, how this influence is precisely working is yet to be discovered. Herein, we discuss the status of the knowledge and the open questions in the field focusing on the function of intestinal microbial metabolites or products on CNS cells during healthy and inflammatory conditions, such as multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases, and also neuropsychiatric disorders. In particular, we focus on the innate inflammasome pathway as immune mechanism that can be involved in several of these conditions, upon exposure to certain microbes.

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McFarland HF Martin R Multiple sclerosis: A complicated picture of autoimmunity. Nat Immunol (2007 ) 8:913–9.
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Dysbiosis in the Gut Microbiota of Patients with Multiple Sclerosis, with a Striking Depletion of Species Belonging to Clostridia XIVa and IV Clusters · 2015
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Cantarel BL Waubant E Chehoud C Kuczynski J DeSantis TZ Warrington J Gut microbiota in multiple sclerosis: possible influence of immunomodulators. J Investig Med (2015 ) 63:729–34.
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Bhargava P Mowry EM Gut Microbiome and Multiple Sclerosis. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep (2014 ) 14(492):1–8.
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137.
Alterations of the human gut microbiome in multiple sclerosis · 2016
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Pröbstel A Baranzini SE The Role of the Gut Microbiome in Multiple Sclerosis Risk and Progression: Towards Characterization of the “MS Microbiome.” Neurotherapeutics (2017 ) 15:126–34.
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Anti-diabetic Effects of Clostridium butyricum CGMCC0313.1 through Promoting the Growth of Gut Butyrate-producing Bacteria in Type 2 Diabetic Mice · 2017
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Chen H Ma X Liu Y Ma L Chen Z Lin X Gut Microbiota Interventions With Clostridium butyricum and Norfloxacin Modulate Immune Response in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis Mice. Front Immunol (2019 ) 10:1662.
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Dong Y Li X Cheng J Hou L Drug development for alzheimer’s disease: Microglia induced neuroinflammation as a target? Int J Mol Sci (2019 ) 20:1–24.
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Triggering of Inflammasome by Aggregated α–Synuclein, an Inflammatory Response in Synucleinopathies · 2013
No notice
239.
Mouton-Liger F Rosazza T Sepulveda-Diaz J Ieang A Hassoun S-M Claire E Parkin deficiency modulates NLRP3 inflammasome activation by attenuating an A20-dependent negative feedback loop. Glia (2018 ) 66:1736–51.
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240.
Wang HX Wang YP Gut microbiota-brain axis. Chin Med J (Engl) (2016 ) 129:2373–80.
Not in our library10.4103/0366-6999.190667
241.
Ferrari CC Pott Godoy MC Tarelli R Chertoff M Depino AM Pitossi FJ Progressive neurodegeneration and motor disabilities induced by chronic expression of IL-1β in the substantia nigra. Neurobiol Dis (2006 ) 24:183–93.
Not in our library10.1016/j.nbd.2006.06.013
242.
Mao Z Liu C Ji S Yang Q Ye H Han H The NLRP3 Inflammasome is Involved in the Pathogenesis of Parkinson’s Disease in Rats. Neurochem Res (2017 ) 42:1104–15.
Not in our library10.1007/s11064-017-2185-0
243.
Fan Z Lu M Qiao C Zhou Y Ding J-H Hu G MicroRNA-7 Enhances Subventricular Zone Neurogenesis by Inhibiting NLRP3/Caspase-1 Axis in Adult Neural Stem Cells. Mol Neurobiol (2016 ) 53:7057–69.
Not in our library10.1007/s12035-015-9620-5
244.
Yan Y Jiang W Liu L Wang X Ding C Tian Z Dopamine controls systemic inflammation through inhibition of NLRP3 inflammasome. Cell (2015 ) 160:62–73.
Not in our library10.1016/j.cell.2014.11.047
245.
Alcocer-Gómez E Ulecia-Morón C Marín-Aguilar F Rybkina T Casas-Barquero N Ruiz-Cabello J Stress-Induced Depressive Behaviors Require a Functional NLRP3 Inflammasome. Mol Neurobiol (2016 ) 53:4874–82.
Not in our library10.1007/s12035-015-9408-7
246.
Baroja-Mazo A Martín-Sánchez F Gomez AI Martínez CM Amores-Iniesta J Compan V The NLRP3 inflammasome is released as a particulate danger signal that amplifies the inflammatory response. Nat Immunol (2014 ) 15:738–48.
Not in our library10.1038/ni.2919
247.
Alcocer-Gómez E Casas-Barquero N Williams MR Romero-Guillena SL Cañadas-Lozano D Bullón P Antidepressants induce autophagy dependent-NLRP3-inflammasome inhibition in Major depressive disorder. Pharmacol Res (2017 ) 121:114–21.
Not in our library10.1016/j.phrs.2017.04.028
248.
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249.
Inflammasomes in neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative diseases · 2019
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250.
Kim C Ho D-H Suk J-E You S Michael S Kang J Neuron-released oligomeric α-synuclein is an endogenous agonist of TLR2 for paracrine activation of microglia. Nat Commun (2013 ) 4:1562.
Not in our library10.1038/ncomms2534
251.
Caggiu E Paulus K Arru G Piredda R Pietro SG Sechi LA Humoral cross reactivity between α-synuclein and herpes simplex-1 epitope in Parkinson’s disease, a triggering role in the disease? J Neuroimmunol (2016 ) 291:110–4.
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252.
Woulfe JM Gray MT Gray DA Munoz DG Middeldorp JM Hypothesis: A role for EBV-induced molecular mimicry in Parkinson’s disease. Parkinsonism Relat Disord (2014 ) 20:685–94.
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253.
Youm Y-H Nguyen KY Grant RW Goldberg EL Bodogai M Kim D The ketone metabolite β-hydroxybutyrate blocks NLRP3 inflammasome–mediated inflammatory disease. Nat Med (2015 ) 21:263–9.
Not in our library10.1038/nm.3804
254.
Iwata M Ota KT Li XY Sakaue F Li N Dutheil S Psychological stress activates the inflammasome via release of adenosine triphosphate and stimulation of the purinergic type 2X7 receptor. Biol Psychiatry (2016 ) 80:12–22.
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255.
Beta-hydroxybutyrate, an endogenic NLRP3 inflammasome inhibitor, attenuates stress-induced behavioral and inflammatory responses · 2017
No notice
256.
NLRP3 Inflammasome in Neurological Diseases, from Functions to Therapies · 2017
No notice

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Gut Microbiome–Brain Alliance: A Landscape View into Mental and Gastrointestinal Health and Disorders · 2023
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Microbiota-gut-brain axis: relationships among the vagus nerve, gut microbiota, obesity, and diabetes · 2023
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Hospital-treated infections in early- and mid-life and risk of Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: A nationwide nested case-control study in Sweden. · 2022
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The Gut Microbiome in Depression and Potential Benefit of Prebiotics, Probiotics and Synbiotics: A Systematic Review of Clinical Trials and Observational Studies · 2022
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Microbiota medicine: towards clinical revolution · 2022
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Gut Microbiota Interact With the Brain Through Systemic Chronic Inflammation: Implications on Neuroinflammation, Neurodegeneration, and Aging · 2022
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Pathophysiology and Current Drug Treatments for Post-Stroke Depression: A Review · 2022
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Probiotics for Alzheimer’s Disease: A Systematic Review · 2021
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