Mycoplasmas: Sophisticated, Reemerging, and Burdened by Their Notoriety

Mycoplasmas are most unusual self-replicating bacteria, possessing very small genomes, lacking cell wall components, requiring cholesterol for membrane function and growth, using UGA codon for tryptophan, passing through "bacterial-retaining" filters, and displaying genetic economy that requires a strict dependence on the host for nutrients and refuge. In addition, many of the mycoplasmas pathogenic for humans and animals possess extraordinary specialized tip organelles that mediate their intimate interaction with eucaryotic cells. This host-adapted survival is achieved through surface parasitism of target cells, acquisition of essential biosynthetic precursors, and in some cases, subsequent entry and survival intracellularly. Misconceptions concerning the role of mycoplasmas in disease pathogenesis can be directly attributed to their biological subtleties and to fundamental deficits in understanding their virulence capabilities. In this review, we highlight the biology and pathogenesis of these procaryotes and provide new evidence that may lead to increased appreciation of their role as human pathogens.

1. 1.

   Baseman J. B., Dallo S. F., Tully J. G., Rose D. L. Isolation and characterization of Mycoplasma genitalium strains from the human respiratory tract. J Clin Microbiol. 1988;26(11):2266-2269.

   Not in our library10.1128/jcm.26.11.2266-2269.1988 (opens in a new tab)

2. 2.

   Baseman J. B., Lange M., Criscimagna N. L., Giron J. A., Thomas C. A. Interplay between mycoplasmas and host target cells. Microb Pathog. 1995;19(2):105-116.

   Not in our library10.1006/mpat.1995.0050 (opens in a new tab)

3. 3.

   Baseman J. B., Reddy S. P., Dallo S. F. Interplay between mycoplasma surface proteins, airway cells, and the protean manifestations of mycoplasma-mediated human infections. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1996;154(4 Pt 2):S137-S144.

   Not in our library10.1164/ajrccm/154.4_pt_2.s137 (opens in a new tab)

4. 4.

   Baseman J. B. The cytadhesins of Mycoplasma pneumoniae and M. genitalium. Subcell Biochem. 1993;20:243-259.

   Not in our library10.1007/978-1-4615-2924-8_9 (opens in a new tab)

5. 5.

   Bisset L. R. The Mycoplasma genitalium adhesin protein and several human class II MHC proteins exhibit sequence homology: possible ramifications for the development of autoimmunity. Autoimmunity. 1992;14(2):167-168.

   Not in our library10.3109/08916939209083137 (opens in a new tab)

6. 6.

   Blanchard A., Montagnier L. AIDS-associated mycoplasmas. Annu Rev Microbiol. 1994;48:687-712.

   Not in our library10.1146/annurev.mi.48.100194.003351 (opens in a new tab)

7. 7.

   Bové J. M. Molecular features of mollicutes. Clin Infect Dis. 1993;17(Suppl 1):S10-S31.

   Not in our library10.1093/clinids/17.supplement_1.s10 (opens in a new tab)

8. 8.

   Burdge D. R., Reid G. D., Reeve C. E., Robertson J. A., Stemke G. W., Bowie W. R. Septic arthritis due to dual infection with Mycoplasma hominis and Ureaplasma urealyticum. J Rheumatol. 1988;15(2):366-368.

   Not in our library

9. 9.

   Chingbingyong M. I., Hughes C. V. Detection of Mycoplasma fermentans in human saliva with a polymerase chain reaction-based assay. Arch Oral Biol. 1996;41(3):311-314.

   Not in our library10.1016/0003-9969(96)84556-0 (opens in a new tab)

10. 10.

    Dallo S. F., Baseman J. B. Adhesin gene of Mycoplasma genitalium exists as multiple copies. Microb Pathog. 1991;10(6):475-480.

    Not in our library10.1016/0882-4010(91)90113-o (opens in a new tab)

11. 11.

    Dallo S. F., Chavoya A., Baseman J. B. Characterization of the gene for a 30-kilodalton adhesion-related protein of Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Infect Immun. 1990;58(12):4163-4165.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.58.12.4163-4165.1990 (opens in a new tab)

12. 12.

    Dallo S. F., Chavoya A., Su C. J., Baseman J. B. DNA and protein sequence homologies between the adhesins of Mycoplasma genitalium and Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Infect Immun. 1989;57(4):1059-1065.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.57.4.1059-1065.1989 (opens in a new tab)

13. 13.

    Dallo S. F., Horton J. R., Su C. J., Baseman J. B. Restriction fragment length polymorphism in the cytadhesin P1 gene of human clinical isolates of Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Infect Immun. 1990;58(6):2017-2020.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.58.6.2017-2020.1990 (opens in a new tab)

14. 14.

    Dallo S. F., Lazzell A. L., Chavoya A., Reddy S. P., Baseman J. B. Biofunctional domains of the Mycoplasma pneumoniae P30 adhesin. Infect Immun. 1996;64(7):2595-2601.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.64.7.2595-2601.1996 (opens in a new tab)

15. 15.

    Dallo S. F., Su C. J., Horton J. R., Baseman J. B. Identification of P1 gene domain containing epitope(s) mediating Mycoplasma pneumoniae cytoadherence. J Exp Med. 1988;167(2):718-723.

    Not in our library10.1084/jem.167.2.718 (opens in a new tab)

16. 16.

    Deguchi T., Gilroy C. B., Taylor-Robinson D. Failure to detect Mycoplasma fermentans, Mycoplasma penetrans, or Mycoplasma pirum in the urethra of patients with acute nongonococcal urethritis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1996;15(2):169-171.

    Not in our library10.1007/bf01591493 (opens in a new tab)

17. 17.

    Deguchi T., Komeda H., Yasuda M., Tada K., Iwata H., Asano M., Ezaki T., Kawada Y. Mycoplasma genitalium in non-gonococcal urethritis. Int J STD AIDS. 1995;6(2):144-145.

    Not in our library10.1177/095646249500600219 (opens in a new tab)

18. 18.

    Dybvig K., Voelker L. L. Molecular biology of mycoplasmas. Annu Rev Microbiol. 1996;50:25-57.

    Not in our library10.1146/annurev.micro.50.1.25 (opens in a new tab)

19. 19.

    Furr P. M., Taylor-Robinson D., Webster A. D. Mycoplasmas and ureaplasmas in patients with hypogammaglobulinaemia and their role in arthritis: microbiological observations over twenty years. Ann Rheum Dis. 1994;53(3):183-187.

    Not in our library10.1136/ard.53.3.183 (opens in a new tab)

20. 20.

    Gass R., Fisher J., Badesch D., Zamora M., Weinberg A., Melsness H., Grover F., Tully J. G., Fang F. C. Donor-to-host transmission of Mycoplasma hominis in lung allograft recipients. Clin Infect Dis. 1996;22(3):567-568.

    Not in our library10.1093/clinids/22.3.567 (opens in a new tab)

21. 21.

    Gelfand E. W. Unique susceptibility of patients with antibody deficiency to mycoplasma infection. Clin Infect Dis. 1993;17(Suppl 1):S250-S253.

    Not in our library

22. 22.

    Gerstenecker B., Jacobs E. Topological mapping of the P1-adhesin of Mycoplasma pneumoniae with adherence-inhibiting monoclonal antibodies. J Gen Microbiol. 1990;136(3):471-476.

    Not in our library10.1099/00221287-136-3-471 (opens in a new tab)

23. 23.

    Girón J. A., Lange M., Baseman J. B. Adherence, fibronectin binding, and induction of cytoskeleton reorganization in cultured human cells by Mycoplasma penetrans. Infect Immun. 1996;64(1):197-208.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.64.1.197-208.1996 (opens in a new tab)

24. 24.

    Goulet M., Dular R., Tully J. G., Billowes G., Kasatiya S. Isolation of Mycoplasma pneumoniae from the human urogenital tract. J Clin Microbiol. 1995;33(11):2823-2825.

    Not in our library10.1128/jcm.33.11.2823-2825.1995 (opens in a new tab)

25. 25.

    Grau O., Slizewicz B., Tuppin P., Launay V., Bourgeois E., Sagot N., Moynier M., Lafeuillade A., Bachelez H., Clauvel J. P. Association of Mycoplasma penetrans with human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Infect Dis. 1995;172(3):672-681.

    Not in our library10.1093/infdis/172.3.672 (opens in a new tab)

26. 26.

    Göbel U., Speth V., Bredt W. Filamentous structures in adherent Mycoplasma pneumoniae cells treated with nonionic detergents. J Cell Biol. 1981;91(2 Pt 1):537-543.

    Not in our library10.1083/jcb.91.2.537 (opens in a new tab)

27. 27.

    Horner P. J., Gilroy C. B., Thomas B. J., Naidoo R. O., Taylor-Robinson D. Association of Mycoplasma genitalium with acute non-gonococcal urethritis. Lancet. 1993;342(8871):582-585.

    Not in our library10.1016/0140-6736(93)91411-e (opens in a new tab)

28. 28.

    Hu P. C., Schaper U., Collier A. M., Clyde W. A., Horikawa M., Huang Y. S., Barile M. F. A Mycoplasma genitalium protein resembling the Mycoplasma pneumoniae attachment protein. Infect Immun. 1987;55(5):1126-1131.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.55.5.1126-1131.1987 (opens in a new tab)

29. 29.

    Inamine J. M., Loechel S., Collier A. M., Barile M. F., Hu P. C. Nucleotide sequence of the MgPa (mgp) operon of Mycoplasma genitalium and comparison to the P1 (mpp) operon of Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Gene. 1989;82(2):259-267.

    Not in our library10.1016/0378-1119(89)90051-6 (opens in a new tab)

30. 30.

    Jensen J. S., Hansen H. T., Lind K. Isolation of Mycoplasma genitalium strains from the male urethra. J Clin Microbiol. 1996;34(2):286-291.

    Not in our library10.1128/jcm.34.2.286-291.1996 (opens in a new tab)

31. 31.

    Kangro H. O., Chong S. K., Hardiman A., Heath R. B., Walker-Smith J. A. A prospective study of viral and mycoplasma infections in chronic inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology. 1990;98(3):549-553.

    Not in our library10.1016/0016-5085(90)90272-3 (opens in a new tab)

32. 32.

    Katseni V. L., Gilroy C. B., Ryait B. K., Ariyoshi K., Bieniasz P. D., Weber J. N., Taylor-Robinson D. Mycoplasma fermentans in individuals seropositive and seronegative for HIV-1. Lancet. 1993;341(8840):271-273.

    Not in our library10.1016/0140-6736(93)92617-3 (opens in a new tab)

33. 33.

    Kirchhoff H., Rosengarten R., Lotz W., Fischer M., Lopatta D. Flask-shaped mycoplasmas: properties and pathogenicity for man and animals. Isr J Med Sci. 1984;20(9):848-853.

    Not in our library

34. 34.

    Krause D. C. Mycoplasma pneumoniae cytadherence: unravelling the tie that binds. Mol Microbiol. 1996;20(2):247-253.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1365-2958.1996.tb02613.x (opens in a new tab)

35. 35.

    Layh-Schmitt G., Hilbert H., Pirkl E. A spontaneous hemadsorption-negative mutant of Mycoplasma pneumoniae exhibits a truncated adhesin-related 30-kilodalton protein and lacks the cytadherence-accessory protein HMW1. J Bacteriol. 1995;177(3):843-846.

    Not in our library10.1128/jb.177.3.843-846.1995 (opens in a new tab)

36. 36.

    Lo S. C., Dawson M. S., Newton P. B., Sonoda M. A., Shih J. W., Engler W. F., Wang R. Y., Wear D. J. Association of the virus-like infectious agent originally reported in patients with AIDS with acute fatal disease in previously healthy non-AIDS patients. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1989;41(3):364-376.

    Not in our library

37. 37.

    Luttrell L. M., Kanj S. S., Corey G. R., Lins R. E., Spinner R. J., Mallon W. J., Sexton D. J. Mycoplasma hominis septic arthritis: two case reports and review. Clin Infect Dis. 1994;19(6):1067-1070.

    Not in our library10.1093/clinids/19.6.1067 (opens in a new tab)

38. 38.

    Macpherson I., Russell W. Transformations in hamster cells mediated by mycoplasmas. Nature. 1966;210(5043):1343-1345.

    Not in our library10.1038/2101343a0 (opens in a new tab)

39. 39.

    Mokhbat J. E., Peterson P. K., Sabath L. D., Robertson J. A. Peritonitis due to Mycoplasma hominis in a renal transplant recipient. J Infect Dis. 1982;146(5):713-713.

    Not in our library10.1093/infdis/146.5.713 (opens in a new tab)

40. 40.

    Murphy W. H., Bullis C., Dabich L., Heyn R., Zarafonetis C. J. Isolation of mycoplasma from leukemic and nonleukemic patients. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1970;45(2):243-251.

    Not in our library

41. 41.

    Murray H. W., Masur H., Senterfit L. B., Roberts R. B. The protean manifestations of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection in adults. Am J Med. 1975;58(2):229-242.

    Not in our library10.1016/0002-9343(75)90574-4 (opens in a new tab)

42. 42.

    Palmer H. M., Gilroy C. B., Furr P. M., Taylor-Robinson D. Development and evaluation of the polymerase chain reaction to detect Mycoplasma genitalium. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 1991;61(2-3):199-203.

    Not in our library10.1016/0378-1097(91)90551-k (opens in a new tab)

43. 43.

    Paton G. R., Jacobs J. P., Perkins F. T. Chromosome changes in human diploid-cell cultures infected with Mycoplasma. Nature. 1965;207(992):43-45.

    Not in our library10.1038/207043a0 (opens in a new tab)

44. 44.

    Peterson S. N., Bailey C. C., Jensen J. S., Borre M. B., King E. S., Bott K. F., Hutchison C. A. Characterization of repetitive DNA in the Mycoplasma genitalium genome: possible role in the generation of antigenic variation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1995;92(25):11829-11833.

    Not in our library10.1073/pnas.92.25.11829 (opens in a new tab)

45. 45.

    Rawadi G., Roman-Roman S. Mycoplasma membrane lipoproteins induced proinflammatory cytokines by a mechanism distinct from that of lipopolysaccharide. Infect Immun. 1996;64(2):637-643.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.64.2.637-643.1996 (opens in a new tab)

46. 46.

    Reddy S. P., Rasmussen W. G., Baseman J. B. Correlations between Mycoplasma pneumoniae sensitivity to cyclosporin A and cyclophilin-mediated regulation of mycoplasma cytadherence. Microb Pathog. 1996;20(3):155-169.

    Not in our library10.1006/mpat.1996.0014 (opens in a new tab)

47. 47.

    Reddy S. P., Rasmussen W. G., Baseman J. B. Isolation and characterization of transposon Tn4001-generated, cytadherence-deficient transformants of Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Mycoplasma genitalium. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol. 1996;15(4):199-211.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1574-695x.1996.tb00086.x (opens in a new tab)

48. 48.

    Reddy S. P., Rasmussen W. G., Baseman J. B. Molecular cloning and characterization of an adherence-related operon of Mycoplasma genitalium. J Bacteriol. 1995;177(20):5943-5951.

    Not in our library10.1128/jb.177.20.5943-5951.1995 (opens in a new tab)

49. 49.

    Root-Bernstein R. S., Hobbs S. H. Homologies between mycoplasma adhesion peptide, CD4 and class II MHC proteins: a possible mechanism for HIV-mycoplasma synergism in AIDS. Res Immunol. 1991;142(7):519-523.

    Not in our library10.1016/0923-2494(91)90096-2 (opens in a new tab)

50. 50.

    Su C. J., Chavoya A., Baseman J. B. Regions of Mycoplasma pneumoniae cytadhesin P1 structural gene exist as multiple copies. Infect Immun. 1988;56(12):3157-3161.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.56.12.3157-3161.1988 (opens in a new tab)

51. 51.

    Su C. J., Chavoya A., Dallo S. F., Baseman J. B. Sequence divergency of the cytadhesin gene of Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Infect Immun. 1990;58(8):2669-2674.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.58.8.2669-2674.1990 (opens in a new tab)

52. 52.

    Su C. J., Dallo S. F., Chavoya A., Baseman J. B. Possible origin of sequence divergence in the P1 cytadhesin gene of Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Infect Immun. 1993;61(3):816-822.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.61.3.816-822.1993 (opens in a new tab)

53. 53.

    Su C. J., Tryon V. V., Baseman J. B. Cloning and sequence analysis of cytadhesin P1 gene from Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Infect Immun. 1987;55(12):3023-3029.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.55.12.3023-3029.1987 (opens in a new tab)

54. 54.

    Taylor-Robinson D., Gilroy C. B., Horowitz S., Horowitz J. Mycoplasma genitalium in the joints of two patients with arthritis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1994;13(12):1066-1069.

    Not in our library10.1007/bf02111830 (opens in a new tab)

55. 55.

    Taylor-Robinson D., Schaeverbeke T. Mycoplasmas in rheumatoid arthritis and other human arthritides. J Clin Pathol. 1996;49(10):781-782.

    Not in our library10.1136/jcp.49.10.781 (opens in a new tab)

56. 56.

    Taylor-Robinson D. The Harrison Lecture. The history and role of Mycoplasma genitalium in sexually transmitted diseases. Genitourin Med. 1995;71(1):1-8.

    Not in our library10.1136/sti.71.1.1 (opens in a new tab)

57. 57.

    Theiss P., Karpas A., Wise K. S. Antigenic topology of the P29 surface lipoprotein of Mycoplasma fermentans: differential display of epitopes results in high-frequency phase variation. Infect Immun. 1996;64(5):1800-1809.

    Not in our library10.1128/iai.64.5.1800-1809.1996 (opens in a new tab)

58. 58.

    Tsai S., Wear D. J., Shih J. W., Lo S. C. Mycoplasmas and oncogenesis: persistent infection and multistage malignant transformation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1995;92(22):10197-10201.

    Not in our library10.1073/pnas.92.22.10197 (opens in a new tab)

59. 59.

    Tully J. G. Current status of the mollicute flora of humans. Clin Infect Dis. 1993;17(Suppl 1):S2-S9.

    Not in our library10.1093/clinids/17.supplement_1.s2 (opens in a new tab)

60. 60.

    Tully J. G., Rose D. L., Baseman J. B., Dallo S. F., Lazzell A. L., Davis C. P. Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Mycoplasma genitalium mixture in synovial fluid isolate. J Clin Microbiol. 1995;33(7):1851-1855.

    Not in our library10.1128/jcm.33.7.1851-1855.1995 (opens in a new tab)

61. 61.

    Tully J. G., Taylor-Robinson D., Cole R. M., Rose D. L. A newly discovered mycoplasma in the human urogenital tract. Lancet. 1981;1(8233):1288-1291.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0140-6736(81)92461-2 (opens in a new tab)

62. 62.

    Tully J. G., Taylor-Robinson D., Rose D. L., Furr P. M., Graham C. E., Barile M. F. Urogenital challenge of primate species with Mycoplasma genitalium and characteristics of infection induced in chimpanzees. J Infect Dis. 1986;153(6):1046-1054.

    Not in our library10.1093/infdis/153.6.1046 (opens in a new tab)

63. 63.

    Wang R. Y., Shih J. W., Weiss S. H., Grandinetti T., Pierce P. F., Lange M., Alter H. J., Wear D. J., Davies C. L., Mayur R. K. Mycoplasma penetrans infection in male homosexuals with AIDS: high seroprevalence and association with Kaposi's sarcoma. Clin Infect Dis. 1993;17(4):724-729.

    Not in our library10.1093/clinids/17.4.724 (opens in a new tab)

64. 64.

    de Barbeyrac B., Bernet-Poggi C., Fébrer F., Renaudin H., Dupon M., Bébéar C. Detection of Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Mycoplasma genitalium in clinical samples by polymerase chain reaction. Clin Infect Dis. 1993;17(Suppl 1):S83-S89.

    Not in our library10.1093/clinids/17.supplement_1.s83 (opens in a new tab)

• A Review of Ureaplasma diversum: A Representative of the Mollicute Class Associated With Reproductive and Respiratory Disorders in Cattle · 2021

  Not checked

• Analysis of pulmonary inflammation and function in the mouse and baboon after exposure to Mycoplasma pneumoniae CARDS toxin. · 2009

  Not checked

A person counts once a day per paper. We keep no cookie and no address: a reader is a hash that changes every day. Any month under five reads shows no number.