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Sex differences in human adipose tissues – the biology of pear shape

Kalypso Karastergiou, Steven R Smith, Andrew S Greenberg and 1 more

Biology of Sex Differences · 2012 · Review

doi:10.1186/2042-6410-3-13

Abstract

Women have more body fat than men, but in contrast to the deleterious metabolic consequences of the central obesity typical of men, the pear-shaped body fat distribution of many women is associated with lower cardiometabolic risk. To understand the mechanisms regulating adiposity and adipose tissue distribution in men and women, significant research attention has focused on comparing adipocyte morphological and metabolic properties, as well as the capacity of preadipocytes derived from different depots for proliferation and differentiation. Available evidence points to possible intrinsic, cell autonomous differences in preadipocytes and adipocytes, as well as modulatory roles for sex steroids, the microenvironment within each adipose tissue, and developmental factors. Gluteal-femoral adipose tissues of women may simply provide a safe lipid reservoir for excess energy, or they may directly regulate systemic metabolism via release of metabolic products or adipokines. We provide a brief overview of the relationship of fat distribution to metabolic health in men and women, and then focus on mechanisms underlying sex differences in adipose tissue biology.

Full text

From PubMed Central, U.S. National Library of Medicine, as current on Oct 17, 2026. Paragraph numbers are ours, so an answer can point at one.

Review

Women, compared to men, have higher percent body fat and deposit it in a different pattern, with relatively more adipose tissue in the hips and thighs. This ‘female’ fat distribution, independent of total body fat, confers protection against metabolic diseases, such as type 2 diabetes and atherosclerosis. Although sex differences in fat distribution and correlations to metabolic health are well established in the clinical and epidemiological literatures, the biological underpinnings of these associations remain poorly understood. Microarray analyses show that adipose mass and depot differences in adipose tissue gene expression in mice are regulated by sexually dimorphic gene networks. Inflammatory and developmental genes, some of which are modulated by sex steroid hormones, are prominent among depot- and sex-specific genes. Furthermore, and especially important for understanding the pathogenesis of obesity and its metabolic complications, interactions of sex differences in gene expression with environmental variables such as diet composition and exercise/activity on fatness and fat distribution remain largely unexplored. Because excellent reviews of sex differences in the regulation of food intake and body weight have been recently published, in this review, we focus on physiologic and genetic determinants of sex differences in fat distribution.

The adipose organ of humans

Cinti convincingly argues that body fat is stored in the adipose organ which consists of definable fat depots. Subcutaneous white adipose tissue (SAT) depots, just under the skin, store ~80-90% of total body fat, mainly in the abdominal (around the waist), subscapular (on the upper back), gluteal and femoral (thigh) areas. These subcutaneous adipose tissues have distinct morphological and metabolic profiles and exhibit sex-specific differences in size and function that we will review in detail. Intra-abdominal depots include visceral adipose tissues (VAT, omental and mesenteric), which are associated with digestive organs. VATs drain their blood into the portal vein and account for 6-20% of total body fat, with higher values in males than females. Adipose tissues in the retroperitoneal compartment (~7% of total) do not drain into the portal vein and are therefore not considered ‘visceral’.

It has been recently recognized that humans, even in adulthood, possess islands of brown adipose tissue, mainly in the supraclavicular/dorsal cervical area. Whereas the function of white adipose tissues is to store excess energy, the function of brown fat is to produce heat. Indeed brown fat mass and activity are induced by cold stress. The exact role of this specialized tissue in the regulation of energy balance in humans remains to be determined (, and reviewed in). Of interest with regard to sex differences in metabolism, limited data indicate that women tend to have higher quantities of brown fat, but the significance of this observation is not clear, as women do not have higher energy expenditure (adjusted for lean mass). The regulation of brown adipose tissue mass and function in determining susceptibility to obesity in men and women is currently an active and important area of investigation, but little is known. This review will focus on sex differences in human white adipose tissues.

Determinants of sex differences in body fat and fat distribution

For the same body mass index (BMI), women typically present with ~10% higher body fat compared to men. Aging increases adiposity in both sexes, but again, women are characterized by higher percent body fat throughout the entire life span. Sex x race interactions are also evident: in contrast to Caucasians, African American women and men appear to have comparable fat content at higher BMI levels.

At comparable levels of total adiposity (estimated either from BMI or by imaging techniques), women have more SAT both in the abdominal and in the gluteofemoral area. Moreover, this is due to preferential increase of superficial and not deep SAT in women; it is the size of the deep compartment that is inversely associated with fasting insulin levels. At the same time women are characterized by lower intra-abdominal/visceral fat mass. However, the difference in visceral fat mass is diminished and not consistently seen in older age groups. Women of Asian origin, either Chinese or South Asian, have higher VAT content than Caucasian women (BMI-adjusted), but lower than men of the same ethnicity. Only black women have VAT comparable to and at the same time abdominal SAT larger than black men.

Fat distribution is modulated by sex steroids

Striking sex differences arise during puberty: the increase in body weight in boys is primarily due to increases in lean mass whereas in girls due to increases in fat mass; typical android and gynoid fat distributions also appear for the first time during this time period. Menopause is followed by redistribution of adipose tissue towards a more central/android phenotype. Importantly, it is visceral adiposity that rises in women during the peri-menopausal transition, presumably due to the fall in estrogen levels. As testosterone declines with age, visceral adiposity also increases in men. The hyperandrogenism in women with polycystic ovary syndrome is frequently, but not consistently, associated with increased total and abdominal adiposity. Finally, studies of transgendered men and women treated with sex steroids show clear shifts in fat distribution. Very little is understood about the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which sex steroids modulate the growth and metabolism and hence the size of specific fat depots in humans (as reviewed below).

Genetic determinants of total adiposity and distribution in women and men

Twin studies demonstrate that genetic factors account for up to 70% of the BMI variance, and that this effect is influenced by sex. A few rare genetic syndromes have differential effects on total adiposity in males and females and may provide clues to understanding sex differences in adiposity. A number of polymorphisms in the estrogen receptor α gene are associated with total adiposity and fat distribution and in some cases this relationship is restricted to females. Results of recent genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified genetic determinants of common polygenic obesity that interact with environmental variables in complex ways, but so far explain only a small percentage of the inter-individual variation in BMI.

GWAS and meta-analyses of GWAS have also identified novel loci associated with central or peripheral fat distribution, some of which are sex-specific (summarized in Table 1). For five of these loci (near or in RSPO3, TBX15, ITPR2, WARS2 and STAB1), differential mRNA expression is also noted between abdominal and gluteal tissue. Although the functional correlates of these SNPs are yet to be identified, there are a number of intriguing candidates. For example, VEGF plays an important role in the vascularization of the expanding adipose tissue in development or obesity; GRB-14 inhibits insulin action; TFAP2B affects adipokine secretion and adipocyte insulin sensitivity and TBX15 differentiation and lipid accumulation. Both KREMEN1 and RSPO3 interact with the Wnt signaling pathway, which in turn plays a fundamental role in adipocyte differentiation.

These loci explain in total only 1.34% of the variance in waist-to-hip ratio in women, and even less (0.46%) in men. Undoubtedly, epigenetic regulation of gene expression by environmental and/or hormonal factors contributes significantly to individual variation and sex differences in fat distribution. Animal studies show that exposure to sex steroids early in life alters adipose tissue distribution and function in adulthood. In humans, sex differences in epigenetic regulation have been reported in several tissues and are feasible to test in adipose tissue. Recent studies showing that acute exercise, overfeeding, and type 2 diabetes can modulate gene expression in skeletal muscle through epigenetic mechanisms open the exciting scenario that lifestyle factors can interact with developmental programming to regulate adipose tissue mass and distribution.

Body fat distribution is linked to health in both men and women

Since the seminal work of Jean Vague, it has become clear that sex differences in adiposity and fat distribution are closely associated with whole body metabolism and long-term health. Thus, although BMI is in itself a strong predictor of total mortality, this is far from a simple, universal relationship. Certain individuals retain metabolic health despite being morbidly obese, while others develop disease at paradoxically normal adiposity levels. In both sexes, a peripheral body fat distribution clearly dissociates fat mass from risk for metabolic diseases.

Gluteal-femoral fat distribution is associated with lower metabolic risk

The clinical significance of body fat distribution is supported by multiple epidemiological studies that confirm the detrimental effect of central body and the protective effect of gluteal-femoral fat on diabetes, cardiovascular risk and eventually morbidity and mortality. Early clinical studies based on anthropometric measurements also showed very clearly that the protective peripheral fat distribution phenotype (pear shape) is mainly seen in women. However, ~40% of women between the age of 30–79 store fat predominantly in the abdominal area as evident by a waist-to-hip ratio >0.85. These so-called upper body obese women suffer from the same metabolic complications as men.

As recently reviewed, premenopausal women, compared to age-matched men, have better lipid profiles: higher high density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol levels and lower low density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol, very low density lipoprotein (VLDL)-cholesterol and total triglyceride levels. Importantly, this improved lipid profile is seen both in the fasting state and postprandially and the sex differences cannot be attributed solely to preferential VAT accumulation in men. Although fasting insulin concentrations are comparable between BMI-matched men and women, women show improved insulin sensitivity at the level of liver and skeletal muscle (reviewed in). This apparent contradiction between higher total body fat and improved systemic metabolism in women intuitively leads to questions about sex differences in the biology and function of different adipose tissue depots.

Mechanisms linking gluteal-femoral fat to metabolic risk are unclear

The storage capacity of gluteal-femoral adipose tissues may play a role in determining the level of central adiposity. A recent randomized-controlled trial in nonobese women showed that removal of thigh fat by liposuction is followed by re-accumulation preferentially in the abdominal area, suggesting that effective peripheral fat storage may protect from the expansion of central fat depots. This ‘redistribution’ of fat would be expected to have an impact on metabolic risk over the long term. However, it is also possible that gluteal-femoral adipose tissue plays an active role in metabolism. Studies in male mice show that transplantation of inguinal SAT as compared to epididymal (which has properties of visceral depots) inside the abdominal cavity leads to less body weight gain and better glucose tolerance. On the other hand, other laboratories report that transplantation of epididymal fat into the abdominal cavity also improves glucose tolerance. Whether SAT of female mice has more potent effects has yet to be reported, and we are currently undertaking these studies.

Sex differences in adipose tissue metabolic function

The major function of adipose tissue is the appropriate and highly regulated storage and release of energy (Figure 1). Free fatty acids (FFA), either circulating or derived from chylomicrons, VLDL-cholesterol and triglycerides (TG) by the action of lipoprotein lipase (LPL), are taken up by the adipocytes and stored as intracellular TG, three fatty acids esterified to a glycerol backbone. Stored TG can be mobilized as required between meals and in the starved state. Insulin and catecholamines act as the main regulatory signals of the fed and the fasted state respectively. The integrated regulation of TG storage and mobilization together with the endocrine function of adipose tissue are essential for whole body metabolism as reviewed before. Depot differences in abdominal versus gluteofemoral fat have been reviewed in detail so here we will emphasize the sex-specific characteristics.

Storage of energy in adipose tissue: subtle differences between sexes

It would be reasonable to expect that women are more effective in storing fat subcutaneously and men intra-abdominally, as that could explain preferential fat deposition. Indeed early in vitro studies suggested that subcutaneous adipocytes/adipose tissue from women show higher LPL activity, lipid synthesis and insulin-stimulated glucose uptake compared to men. In vivo studies however show that the answer is more complex.

Women store a higher percentage of meal-derived FA in SAT compared to men (38% vs 24%), but this is a direct result of their greater SAT mass. When expressed as per gram of adipose tissue lipid, i.e. per unit of fat mass, FA uptake is comparable between sexes in all three SAT depots (abdominal, gluteal and thigh). On the other hand, the uptake of meal-derived fatty acids by VAT in men exceeds that in women, whether it is calculated as % of total meal disposal or as absolute values (μmol/min). Thus, differences in FFA storage after a meal are likely to contribute to VAT expansion in men, but less likely to contribute to SAT expansion in women.

Under certain conditions though, the female tendency to store fat in the peripheral subcutaneous depots becomes more apparent. In response to a hypercaloric, high-fat meal, storage of meal-derived triglyceride-fatty acids per gram of adipose tissue lipid is increased preferentially in the gluteo-femoral SAT of women compared to men, despite the fact that the adipocytes are larger, i.e. there are fewer adipocytes per gram. Additionally, meal fat storage is more efficient in peripheral vs. abdominal SAT of women with gluteal-femoral obesity; in upper body obese women or obese men there are no such regional differences. These findings appear to be driven by depot differences in LPL activity, which is a rate-determining step in the uptake of circulating triglycerides. Further studies are needed to assess the mechanisms for these depot- and sex-specific phenomena, including assessment of regional differences in sex steroid action on LPL in men and women of varying fat distribution.

Net fat storage in the adipose tissue after a meal requires inhibition of lipolysis, achieved by increased circulating insulin levels. This mechanism is less effective both in men and in upper body obese women compared to women with peripheral fat distribution. Differences in insulin sensitivity (higher in females) are reproduced in vitro in isolated adipocytes of pre-, but not post-menopausal women and can also be causally linked to the detrimental postprandial metabolic profile seen in men and upper body obese women.

Although it was once believed that LPL-mediated uptake of fatty acids from circulating TG-rich lipoproteins at the fed state is the major or sole mechanism for FA provision to the adipose tissue, the importance of direct uptake of circulating FFA at the postabsorptive state is now realized. This pathway shows clear sexual dimorphism: at the whole body level, women deposit double the percentage of circulating FFA (8.2% versus 4.0%) in body fat. Furthermore, lean men are less efficient at depositing circulating FFA into femoral as compared to abdominal adipose tissue, while lean women show no depot difference. In obese subjects direct FFA uptake is enhanced specifically in the femoral tissue of women. The peripheral fat depots of women are also more effective in FFA storage during physical activity (walking) in comparison to both abdominal SAT of women or to any SAT depot of men. Higher direct FFA storage was also noted in the omental adipose tissue of women (a visceral depot), which is opposite to what would be predicted from the lower mass of this depot in women. Therefore, the capacity for direct FFA deposition is likely not the major determinant of visceral adiposity.

To summarize, differences in fat deposition between sexes are likely to arise partly due to: a) the preferential postabsorptive direct FFA uptake by SAT in women and b) the enhanced postprandial meal-derived FFA uptake by VAT in men (Figure 2).

Release of energy from adipose tissue: female adipose tissue is more lipolytically active

To achieve normal fatty acid homeostasis, the FFA flux to or from adipose tissue needs to match whole body energy requirements. FA release in excess of the needs of other tissues leads to elevated circulating FFA levels or flux, which in turn contribute to insulin resistance, ectopic lipid accumulation and lipotoxicity. Thus, it comes as no surprise that total FFA flux correlates closely with whole body energy requirements (resting energy expenditure). Given the higher fat levels in women, one could hypothesize that release of FFA (lipolysis) would be suppressed compared to men. On the contrary, lipolysis relative to resting energy expenditure is significantly higher (by about 40%) in women. This is achieved without deleterious consequences partly because women are more dependent on fat oxidation than men in periods of high energy requirements like exercise, when men tend to utilize more carbohydrates. Therefore, the increased lipolysis is a mechanism that matches well the preferential use of FFA in women.

On the other hand, lipolytic rates in women are higher than in men even under resting conditions when FA oxidation is comparable between sexes. This is associated with ~15% higher levels of circulating FFA levels but not with any detrimental effects on whole body metabolism. It follows logically that for women to preserve their insulin sensitivity, they have to be more effective in alternative FFA disposal. Indeed, recent studies demonstrated that women exhibit higher non-oxidative FFA disposal (i.e. esterification and storage as triglycerides) and after an overnight fast, they preferentially partition FFA towards hepatic oxidation to ketone bodies, rather than incorporation into VLDL-TG. FFA can also be shuttled back to adipose tissue through the direct FFA uptake pathway discussed above.

Sex differences in systemic lipolysis appear to arise at the level of the upper-body SAT which is, in both sexes, the main source of circulating FFA. Norepinephrine-stimulated lipolysis in abdominal SAT in women exceeds that seen in men both in vivo and ex vivo. Similarly, after exercise, the increase in circulating glycerol is augmented in women compared to men, as well as the glycerol release specifically by the abdominal SAT (no differences were seen between sexes in the gluteofemoral SAT). Prolonged fasting (up to 72 h) leads to exacerbated stimulation of lipolysis in women compared to men, despite comparable rises in catecholamine levels. The opposite holds true for VAT, where ex vivo and in vivo stimulation of lipolysis is higher in men, but this has more impact on FA flux to the liver via the portal circulation and little impact on systemic FFA flux. Finally in men, ex vivo lipolysis is higher in intra-peritoneal (omental and mesenteric) than retro-peritoneal depots, while the opposite occurs in women, but the in vivo physiological significance of these observations is unclear.

To summarize: women, compared to men, show higher rates of mobilization of adipose tissue TG stores, possibly because they are more dependent on FFA as an energy source under conditions of high energy demands like exercise. At the same time they are more efficient in handling FFA and thus retain their insulin sensitivity. Depot differences in lipolysis however cannot explain the peripheral deposition of fat in women compared to men (Figure 2).

Sex differences in the endocrine function of adipose tissue

Apart from regulating fuel homeostasis, adipose tissue releases a multitude of secretory products, collectively called adipokines. The regulation of adipokine release and their individual roles have been reviewed extensively ( among others). The two major adipokines are leptin, a metabolic regulator and feedback signal of body fat to regulate appetite, and adiponectin, an insulin-sensitizing and anti-inflammatory hormone. Multiple studies have established that women have higher circulating leptin levels compared to men, even after adjusting for differences in BMI and body fat content and this finding is replicated in ex vivo adipose tissue cultures. Interestingly, although sex differences in leptin are augmented during puberty, they are also apparent in children and even in neonates. Leptin levels do not decline with menopause suggesting again that the higher leptin relative to body fat in women is not simply due to sex steroids (although postmenopausal women have slightly lower leptin per kg of fat compared to premenopausal women, they still have higher levels in comparison to men). Higher circulating adiponectin concentrations are also seen in women despite their higher adiposity, which is associated in both sexes with lower adiponectin levels. These sex differences in adipokine production are of dual significance. They suggest inherent differences in adipocyte function between sexes or differential regulation by hormones, e.g. suppressive effects of androgens on leptin and adiponectin production. More importantly, they may be also directly and causally related to the differences in whole body insulin sensitivity and metabolism seen between sexes.

Sex steroids influence depot-specific adipose tissue metabolism and endocrine function

It is evident from the changes taking place during puberty and menopause, in women with polycystic ovary syndrome and in transgendered individuals that sex hormones have multiple effects of adipose tissue. The exact mechanisms involved remain largely obscure. Human adipocytes, as well as preadipocytes, express sex steroid receptors. Both estrogens and androgens blunt lipolytic responses to catecholamines, an effect that is modulated at least partly via changes in adrenergic receptors expression, and also suppress LPL expression and activity. Androgens have also been shown to increase glucose uptake. Sex steroids have contradictory effects on leptin secretion - estrogens induce it and androgens inhibit it – in a sex specific manner, i.e. more so in adipocytes derived from women than from men. It is also possible that sex steroids affect adipose tissue biology primarily via effects on the central nervous system, rather than via direct effects on the adipocytes. For example, in animal models, estrogen effects on steroidogenic factor-1 neurons of the ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus enhance brown adipose tissue thermogenesis and specifically limit visceral adipose tissue accumulation.

Sex steroids may regulate adipose tissue growth in a depot specific manner

Adipose tissue expands through enlargement of existing adipocytes and recruitment of progenitors. Sex differences in fat distribution involve both cell size and number: gluteo-femoral adipocytes of women are larger than in men, whereas abdominal adipocytes are comparable between sexes, and visceral adipocytes of women are smaller. Nevertheless, the expansion of subcutaneous depots in obese women compared to men is mainly due to higher cell numbers. More recently and with more exact imaging techniques, it was again shown that femoral fat accumulation in women is associated with increased adipocyte number (hyperplasia) whereas in men with increased adipocyte size (hypertrophy). Fat accumulation in the abdominal area is associated with hypertrophy in both sexes, but women start with more adipocytes even at the lean state and can therefore accommodate larger fat mass.

Although extensive studies document depot differences in the capacity of different depots of rodents to expand through hyperplasia, remarkably little is known about humans. Limited data suggest that the SAT of women, and particularly the femoral depot, contains a higher percentage of early differentiated adipocytes compared to men. Interestingly, in vitro proliferation and differentiation of preadipocytes isolated from the same individuals were comparable between sexes, leading these authors to suggest that the local microenvironment rather than inherent cellular differences promotes adipogenesis in women.

In vitro, estrogens stimulate proliferation of human preadipocytes, whereas androgens inhibit differentiation without affecting proliferation. However, whether specific depots are differentially sensitive to sex steroid effects and potential sex-differences in response to these hormones are yet to be systemically investigated.

The systems biology of sex differences in adipose tissue

A comprehensive analysis of the gene networks that differ in ‘visceral’ adipose tissues (unspecified) of male and female mice clearly shows that gene networks identified in each sex affect different pathways and have different associations with metabolic and obesity traits (4). Recent studies in humans indicate the existence of sex biased mRNA and miRNA expression in abdominal and gluteal adipose tissues that will undoubtedly yield new mechanistic insights.

Conclusions

Sex differences in the fat phenotypes are probably determined by a complex interplay of genetic, epigenetic, and hormonal factors. Elegant in vivo studies of depot- and sex-specific differences in adipose tissue metabolism showed that the primary suspects (lipid uptake and mobilization) are not the main mediators and at the same time pointed to new pathways (direct FFA uptake) for further investigation. We still do not know if sex differences in the function of female adipocytes are mainly derived from genetic, cell autonomous properties related to sex chromosomes or from critical early imprinting events by sex steroids. The direct effects of sex hormones on adipocyte function and the importance of the microenvironment of specific adipose depots on growth remain poorly understood. Much more work will be required to integrate all the data arising from studies of global gene and miRNA expression, as well as of epigenetic changes, and to understand why females can accumulate more adipose tissue than men without deleterious metabolic consequences, and how gluteal-femoral adipose tissue in particular lessens metabolic risk.

Competing interests

The authors have no competing interests to disclose.

Authors’ contributions

KK drafted and SKF edited the manuscript. SRS and ASG reviewed the manuscript and made suggestions. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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  36. 36.

    Toth MJ Tchernof A Sites CK Poehlman ET Effect of menopausal status on body composition and abdominal fat distributionInt J Obes Relat Metab Disord2000 24226231

    Not in our library10.1038/sj.ijo.0801118

  37. 37.

    Lovejoy JC Champagne CM de Jonge L Xie H Smith SR Increased visceral fat and decreased energy expenditure during the menopausal transitionInt J Obes2008 32949958

    Not in our library10.1038/ijo.2008.25

  38. 38.

    Allan CA Strauss BJ Burger HG Forbes EA McLachlan RI Testosterone therapy prevents gain in visceral adipose tissue and loss of skeletal muscle in nonobese aging menJ Clin Endocrinol Metab2008 93139146

    Not in our library10.1210/jc.2007-1291

  39. 39.

    Stevens J Katz EG Huxley RR Associations between gender, age and waist circumferenceEur J Clin Nutr2010 64615

    Not in our library10.1038/ejcn.2009.101

  40. 40.

    Puder JJ Varga S Kraenzlin M De Geyter C Keller U Müller B Central fat excess in polycystic ovary syndrome: relation to low-grade inflammation and insulin resistanceJ Clin Endocrinol Metab2005 9060146021

    Not in our library10.1210/jc.2005-1002

  41. 41.

    Carmina E Bucchieri S Esposito A Del Puente A Mansueto P Orio F Di Fede G Rini G Abdominal fat quantity and distribution in women with polycystic ovary syndrome and extent of its relation to insulin resistanceJ Clin Endocrinol Metab2007 9225002505

    Not in our library10.1210/jc.2006-2725

  42. 42.

    Barber TM Golding SJ Alvey C Wass JA Karpe F Franks S McCarthy MI Global adiposity rather than abnormal regional fat distribution characterizes women with polycystic ovary syndromeJ Clin Endocrinol Metab2008 939991004

    Not in our library10.1210/jc.2007-2117

  43. 43.

    Elbers JM Asscheman H Seidell JC Gooren LJ Effects of sex steroid hormones on regional fat depots as assessed by magnetic resonance imaging in transsexualsAm J Physiol1999 276E317E325

    Not in our library10.1152/ajpendo.1999.276.2.e317

  44. 44.

    Stunkard AJ Harris JR Pedersen NL McClearn GE The body-mass index of twins who have been reared apartN Engl J Med1990 32214831487

    Not in our library10.1056/nejm199005243222102

  45. 45.

    Schousboe K Willemsen G Kyvik KO Mortensen J Boomsma DI Cornes BK Davis CJ Fagnani C Hjelmborg J Kaprio J De Lange M Luciano M Martin NG Pedersen N Pietiläinen KH Rissanen A Saarni S Sørensen TI Van Baal GC Harris JR Sex differences in heritability of BMI: a comparative study of results from twin studies in eight countriesTwin Res2003 6409421

    Not in our library10.1375/136905203770326411

  46. 46.

    Dempfle A Hinney A Heinzel-Gutenbrunner M Raab M Geller F Gudermann T Schäfer H Hebebrand J Large quantitative effect of melanocortin-4 receptor gene mutations on body mass indexJ Med Genet2004 41795800

    Not in our library10.1136/jmg.2004.018614

  47. 47.

    Stone S Abkevich V Russell DL Riley R Timms K Tran T Trem D Frank D Jammulapati S Neff CD Iliev D Gress R He G Frech GC Adams TD Skolnick MH Lanchbury JS Gutin A Hunt SC Shattuck D TBC1D1 is a candidate for a severe obesity gene and evidence for a gene/gene interaction in obesity predispositionHum Mol Genet2006 1527092720

    Not in our library10.1093/hmg/ddl204

  48. 48.

    Meyre D Farge M Lecoeur C Proenca C Durand E Allegaert F Tichet J Marre M Balkau B Weill J Delplanque J Froguel P R125W coding variant in TBC1D1 confers risk for familial obesity and contributes to linkage on chromosome 4p14 in the French populationHum Mol Genet2008 1717981802

    Not in our library10.1093/hmg/ddn070

  49. 49.

    Araújo-Vilar D Loidi L Domínguez F Cabezas-Cerrato J Phenotypic gender differences in subjects with familial partial lipodystrophy (Dunnigan variety) due to a nuclear lamin A/C R482W mutationHorm Metab Res2003 352935

    Not in our library10.1055/s-2003-38388

  50. 50.

    Okura T Koda M Ando F Niino N Ohta S Shimokata H Association of polymorphisms in the estrogen receptor alpha gene with body fat distributionInt J Obes Relat Metab Disord2003 2710201027

    Not in our library10.1038/sj.ijo.0802378

  51. 51.

    Gallagher CJ Langefeld CD Gordon CJ Campbell JK Mychaleckyj JC Bryer-Ash M Rich SS Bowden DW Sale MM Association of the estrogen receptor-alpha gene with the metabolic syndrome and its component traits in African-American families: the Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Family StudyDiabetes2007 5621352141

    Not in our library10.2337/db06-1017

  52. 52.

    Nilsson M Dahlman I Jiao H Gustafsson JA Arner P Dahlman-Wright K Impact of estrogen receptor gene polymorphisms and mRNA levels on obesity and lipolysis–a cohort studyBMC Med Genet2007 873

    Not in our library10.1186/1471-2350-8-73

  53. 53.

    Speliotes EK Willer CJ Berndt SI Monda KL Thorleifsson G Jackson AU Allen HL Lindgren CM Luan J Mägi R Randall JC Vedantam S Winkler TW Qi L Workalemahu T Heid IM Steinthorsdottir V Stringham HM Weedon MN Wheeler E Wood AR Ferreira T Weyant RJ Segrè AV Estrada K Liang L Nemesh J Park JH Gustafsson S Kilpeläinen TO Association analyses of 249,796 individuals reveal 18 new loci associated with body mass indexNat Genet2010 42937948

    Not in our library10.1038/ng.686

  54. 54.

    Heid IM Jackson AU Randall JC Winkler TW Qi L Steinthorsdottir V Thorleifsson G Zillikens MC Speliotes EK Mägi R Workalemahu T White CC Bouatia-Naji N Harris TB Berndt SI Ingelsson E Willer CJ Weedon MN Luan J Vedantam S Esko T Kilpeläinen TO Kutalik Z Li S Monda KL Dixon AL Holmes CC Kaplan LM Liang L Min JL Meta-analysis identifies 13 new loci associated with waist-hip ratio and reveals sexual dimorphism in the genetic basis of fat distributionNat Genet2010 42949960

    Not in our library10.1038/ng.685

  55. 55.
    Genome-Wide Association Scan Meta-Analysis Identifies Three Loci Influencing Adiposity and Fat Distribution · 2009
    Corrected
  56. 56.

    Cao Y Angiogenesis modulates adipogenesis and obesityJ Clin Invest2007 11723622368

    Not in our library10.1172/jci32239

  57. 57.

    Cariou B Capitaine N Le Marcis V Vega N Béréziat V Kergoat M Laville M Girard J Vidal H Burnol AF Increased adipose tissue expression of Grb14 in several models of insulin resistanceFASEB J2004 18965967

    Not in our library10.1096/fj.03-0824fje

  58. 58.

    Cooney GJ Lyons RJ Crew AJ Jensen TE Molero JC Mitchell CJ Biden TJ Ormandy CJ James DE Daly RJ Improved glucose homeostasis and enhanced insulin signalling in Grb14-deficient miceEMBO J2004 23582593

    Not in our library10.1038/sj.emboj.7600082

  59. 59.

    Ikeda K Maegawa H Ugi S Tao Y Nishio Y Tsukada S Maeda S Kashiwagi A Transcription factor activating enhancer-binding protein-2beta. A negative regulator of adiponectin gene expressionJ Biol Chem2006 2813124531253

    Not in our library10.1074/jbc.m605132200

  60. 60.

    Tao Y Maegawa H Ugi S Ikeda K Nagai Y Egawa K Nakamura T Tsukada S Nishio Y Maeda S Kashiwagi A The transcription factor AP-2beta causes cell enlargement and insulin resistance in 3 T3-L1 adipocytesEndocrinology2006 14716851696

    Not in our library10.1210/en.2005-1304

  61. 61.

    Gesta S Bezy O Mori MA Macotela Y Lee KY Kahn CR Mesodermal developmental gene Tbx15 impairs adipocyte differentiation and mitochondrial respirationProc Natl Acad Sci U S A2011 10827712776

    Not in our library10.1073/pnas.1019704108

  62. 62.

    Kim KA Wagle M Tran K Zhan X Dixon MA Liu S Gros D Korver W Yonkovich S Tomasevic N Binnerts M Abo A R-Spondin family members regulate the Wnt pathway by a common mechanismMol Biol Cell2008 1925882596

    Not in our library10.1091/mbc.e08-02-0187

  63. 63.

    Mao B Wu W Davidson G Marhold J Li M Mechler BM Delius H Hoppe D Stannek P Walter C Glinka A Niehrs C Kremen proteins are Dickkopf receptors that regulate Wnt/beta-catenin signallingNature2002 417664667

    Not in our library10.1038/nature756

  64. 64.

    Alexanderson C Eriksson E Stener-Victorin E Lystig T Gabrielsson B Lönn M Holmäng A Postnatal testosterone exposure results in insulin resistance, enlarged mesenteric adipocytes, and an atherogenic lipid profile in adult female rats: comparisons with estradiol and dihydrotestosteroneEndocrinology2007 14853695376

    Not in our library10.1210/en.2007-0305

  65. 65.

    Zhang FF Cardarelli R Carroll J Fulda KG Kaur M Gonzalez K Vishwanatha JK Santella RM Morabia A Significant differences in global genomic DNA methylation by gender and race/ethnicity in peripheral bloodEpigenetics2011 6623629

    Not in our library10.4161/epi.6.5.15335

  66. 66.

    Waxman DJ O’Connor C Growth hormone regulation of sex-dependent liver gene expressionMol Endocrinol2006 2026132629

    Not in our library10.1210/me.2006-0007

  67. 67.

    Nilsson C Niklasson M Eriksson E Björntorp P Holmäng A Imprinting of female offspring with testosterone results in insulin resistance and changes in body fat distribution at adult age in ratsJ Clin Invest1998 1017478

    Not in our library10.1172/jci1353

  68. 68.

    McCarthy MM Auger AP Bale TL De Vries GJ Dunn GA Forger NG Murray EK Nugent BM Schwarz JM Wilson ME The epigenetics of sex differences in the brainJ Neurosci2009 291281512823

    Not in our library10.1523/jneurosci.3331-09.2009

  69. 69.

    Arnold AP Lusis AJ Understanding the Sexome: Measuring and Reporting Sex Differences in Gene SystemsEndocrinology2012 [Epub ahead of print]

    Not in our library10.1210/en.2011-2134

  70. 70.

    Pinnick KE Karpe F DNA methylation of genes in adipose tissueProc Nutr Soc2011 705763

    Not in our library10.1017/s0029665110004015

  71. 71.

    Barrès R Yan J Egan B Treebak JT Rasmussen M Fritz T Caidahl K Krook A O’Gorman DJ Zierath JR Acute exercise remodels promoter methylation in human skeletal muscleCell Metab2012 15405411

    Not in our library10.1016/j.cmet.2012.01.001

  72. 72.

    Barrès R Osler ME Yan J Rune A Fritz T Caidahl K Krook A Zierath JR Non-CpG methylation of the PGC-1alpha promoter through DNMT3B controls mitochondrial densityCell Metab2009 10189198

    Not in our library10.1016/j.cmet.2009.07.011

  73. 73.

    Brøns C Jacobsen S Nilsson E Rönn T Jensen CB Storgaard H Poulsen P Groop L Ling C Astrup A Vaag A Deoxyribonucleic acid methylation and gene expression of PPARGC1A in human muscle is influenced by high-fat overfeeding in a birth-weight-dependent mannerJ Clin Endocrinol Metab2010 9530483056

    Not in our library10.1210/jc.2009-2413

  74. 74.

    Vague J La différentiation sexuelle. Facteur determinant des formes de l′obesitéPress Med1947 30339340

    Not in our library

  75. 75.

    Vague J The degree of masculine differentiation of obesity. A factor determining predisposition to diabetes, atherosclerosis, gout and uric calculus diseaseAm J Clin Nutr1956 42034

    Not in our library10.1093/ajcn/4.1.20

  76. 76.

    Whitlock G Lewington S Sherliker P Clarke R Emberson J Halsey J Qizilbash N Collins R Peto R Prospective Studies CollaborationBody-mass index and cause-specific mortality in 900 000 adults: collaborative analyses of 57 prospective studiesLancet2009 37310831096

    Not in our library10.1016/s0140-6736(09)60318-4

  77. 77.

    Blüher M The distinction of metabolically ‘healthy’ from ‘unhealthy’ obese individualsCurr Opin Lipidol2010 213843

    Not in our library10.1097/mol.0b013e3283346ccc

  78. 78.

    Beck E Esser N Paquot N Scheen AJ Metabolically obese normal-weight individuals and metabolically healthy, but obese, subjectsRev Med Suisse2009 51644–16461648–1649

    Not in our library

  79. 79.

    Snijder MB Dekker JM Visser M Bouter LM Stehouwer CD Kostense PJ Yudkin JS Heine RJ Nijpels G Seidell JC Associations of hip and thigh circumferences independent of waist circumference with the incidence of type 2 diabetes: the Hoorn StudyAm J Clin Nutr2003 7711921197

    Not in our library10.1093/ajcn/77.5.1192

  80. 80.

    Snijder MB Visser M Dekker JM Goodpaster BH Harris TB Kritchevsky SB De Rekeneire N Kanaya AM Newman AB Tylavsky FA Seidell JC Health ABC Study: Low subcutaneous thigh fat is a risk factor for unfavourable glucose and lipid levels, independently of high abdominal fat. The Health ABC StudyDiabetologia2005 48301308

    Not in our library10.1007/s00125-004-1637-7

  81. 81.

    Chan JM Rimm EB Colditz GA Stampfer MJ Willett WC Obesity, fat distribution, and weight gain as risk factors for clinical diabetes in menDiabetes Care1994 17961969

    Not in our library10.2337/diacare.17.9.961

  82. 82.

    Carey VJ Walters EE Colditz GA Solomon CG Willett WC Rosner BA Speizer FE Manson JE Body fat distribution and risk of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in women. The Nurses’ Health StudyAm J Epidemiol1997 145614619

    Not in our library10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009158

  83. 83.

    Lapidus L Bengtsson C Larsson B Pennert K Rybo E Sjöström L Distribution of adipose tissue and risk of cardiovascular disease and death: a 12 year follow up of participants in the population study of women in Gothenburg, SwedenBr Med J1984 28912571261

    Not in our library10.1136/bmj.289.6454.1257

  84. 84.

    Folsom AR Kaye SA Sellers TA Hong CP Cerhan JR Potter JD Prineas RJ Body fat distribution and 5-year risk of death in older womenJAMA1993 269483487

    Not in our library10.1001/jama.1993.03500040049035

  85. 85.

    Seidell JC Pérusse L Després JP Bouchard C Waist and hip circumferences have independent and opposite effects on cardiovascular disease risk factors: the Quebec Family StudyAm J Clin Nutr2001 74315321

    Not in our library10.1093/ajcn/74.3.315

  86. 86.

    Okosun IS Liao Y Rotimi CN Prewitt TE Cooper RS Abdominal adiposity and clustering of multiple metabolic syndrome in White, Black and Hispanic americansAnn Epidemiol2000 10263270

    Not in our library10.1016/s1047-2797(00)00045-4

  87. 87.

    Canoy D Boekholdt SM Wareham N Luben R Welch A Bingham S Buchan I Day N Khaw KT Body fat distribution and risk of coronary heart disease in men and women in the European Prospective Investigation Into Cancer and Nutrition in Norfolk cohort: a population-based prospective studyCirculation2007 11629332943

    Not in our library10.1161/circulationaha.106.673756

  88. 88.

    Pischon T Boeing H Hoffmann K Bergmann M Schulze MB Overvad K van der Schouw YT Spencer E Moons KG Tjønneland A Halkjaer J Jensen MK Stegger J Clavel-Chapelon F Boutron-Ruault MC Chajes V Linseisen J Kaaks R Trichopoulou A Trichopoulos D Bamia C Sieri S Palli D Tumino R Vineis P Panico S Peeters PH May AM Bueno-de-Mesquita HB van Duijnhoven FJ General and abdominal adiposity and risk of death in EuropeN Engl J Med2008 35921052120

    Not in our library10.1056/nejmoa0801891

  89. 89.

    Després JP Cardiovascular disease under the influence of excess visceral fatCrit Pathw Cardiol2007 65159

    Not in our library10.1097/hpc.0b013e318057d4c9

  90. 90.

    Krotkiewski M Björntorp P Sjöström L Smith U Impact of obesity on metabolism in men and women. Importance of regional adipose tissue distributionJ Clin Invest1983 7211501162

    Not in our library10.1172/jci111040

  91. 91.

    Meigs JB Wilson PW Nathan DM D’Agostino RB Williams K Haffner SM Prevalence and characteristics of the metabolic syndrome in the San Antonio Heart and Framingham Offspring StudiesDiabetes2003 5221602167

    Not in our library10.2337/diabetes.52.8.2160

  92. 92.

    Jensen MD Role of body fat distribution and the metabolic complications of obesityJ Clin Endocrinol Metab2008 9311 Suppl 1S57S63

    Not in our library10.1210/jc.2008-1585

  93. 93.

    Wang X Magkos F Mittendorfer B Sex differences in lipid and lipoprotein metabolism: it’s not just about sex hormonesJ Clin Endocrinol Metab2011 96885893

    Not in our library10.1210/jc.2010-2061

  94. 94.

    Cohn JS McNamara JR Cohn SD Ordovas JM Schaefer EJ Postprandial plasma lipoprotein changes in human subjects of different agesJ Lipid Res1988 29469479

    Not in our library

  95. 95.

    Couillard C Bergeron N Prud’homme D Bergeron J Tremblay A Bouchard C Mauriège P Després JP Gender difference in postprandial lipemia: importance of visceral adipose tissue accumulationArterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol1999 1924482455

    Not in our library10.1161/01.atv.19.10.2448

  96. 96.

    Lemieux I Pascot A Lamarche B Prud’homme D Nadeau A Bergeron J Després JP Is the gender difference in LDL size explained by the metabolic complications of visceral obesity?Eur J Clin Invest2002 32909917

    Not in our library10.1046/j.1365-2362.2002.01092.x

  97. 97.

    Foster KJ Alberti KG Hinks L Lloyd B Postle A Smythe P Turnell DC Walton R Blood intermediary metabolite and insulin concentrations after an overnight fast: reference ranges for adults, and interrelationsClin Chem1978 2415681572

    Not in our library

  98. 98.

    Magkos F Wang X Mittendorfer B Metabolic actions of insulin in men and womenNutrition2010 26686693

    Not in our library10.1016/j.nut.2009.10.013

  99. 99.

    Hernandez TL Kittelson JM Law CK Ketch LL Stob NR Lindstrom RC Scherzinger A Stamm ER Eckel RH Fat redistribution following suction lipectomy: defense of body fat and patterns of restorationObesity (Silver Spring)2011 1913881395

    Not in our library10.1038/oby.2011.64

  100. 100.

    Tran TT Kahn CR Transplantation of adipose tissue and stem cells: role in metabolism and diseaseNat Rev Endocrinol2010 6195213

    Not in our library10.1038/nrendo.2010.20

  101. 101.

    Tran TT Yamamoto Y Gesta S Kahn CR Beneficial effects of subcutaneous fat transplantation on metabolismCell Metab2008 7410420

    Not in our library10.1016/j.cmet.2008.04.004

  102. 102.

    Foster MT Shi H Softic S Kohli R Seeley RJ Woods SC Transplantation of non-visceral fat to the visceral cavity improves glucose tolerance in mice: investigation of hepatic lipids and insulin sensitivityDiabetologia2011 5428902899

    Not in our library10.1007/s00125-011-2259-5

  103. 103.

    Konrad D Rudich A Schoenle EJ Improved glucose tolerance in mice receiving intraperitoneal transplantation of normal fat tissueDiabetologia2007 50833839

    Not in our library10.1007/s00125-007-0596-1

  104. 104.

    Frayn KN Karpe F Fielding BA Macdonald IA Coppack SW Integrative physiology of human adipose tissueInt J Obes Relat Metab Disord2003 27875888

    Not in our library10.1038/sj.ijo.0802326

  105. 105.

    Fried SK Kral JG Sex differences in regional distribution of fat cell size and lipoprotein lipase activity in morbidly obese patientsInt J Obes1987 11129140

    Not in our library

  106. 106.

    Edens NK Fried SK Kral JG Hirsch J Leibel RL In vitro lipid synthesis in human adipose tissue from three abdominal sitesAm J Physiol1993 265E374E379

    Not in our library10.1152/ajpendo.1993.265.3.e374

  107. 107.

    Pedersen O Hjøllund E Lindskov HO Insulin binding and action on fat cells from young healthy females and malesAm J Physiol1982 243E158E167

    Not in our library10.1152/ajpendo.1982.243.2.e158

  108. 108.

    Foley JE Kashiwagi A Chang H Huecksteadt TP Lillioja S Verso MA Reaven G Sex difference in insulin-stimulated glucose transport in rat and human adipocytesAm J Physiol1984 246E211E215

    Not in our library10.1152/ajpendo.1984.246.3.e211

  109. 109.

    Romanski SA Nelson RM Jensen MD Meal fatty acid uptake in adipose tissue: gender effects in nonobese humansAm J Physiol Endocrinol Metab2000 279E455E462

    Not in our library10.1152/ajpendo.2000.279.2.e455

  110. 110.

    Uranga AP Levine J Jensen M Isotope tracer measures of meal fatty acid metabolism: reproducibility and effects of the menstrual cycleAm J Physiol Endocrinol Metab2005 288E547E555

    Not in our library10.1152/ajpendo.00340.2004

  111. 111.

    Nguyen TT Hernández Mijares A Johnson CM Jensen MD Postprandial leg and splanchnic fatty acid metabolism in nonobese men and womenAm J Physiol1996 271E965E972

    Not in our library10.1152/ajpendo.1996.271.6.e965

  112. 112.

    Votruba SB Jensen MD Sex-specific differences in leg fat uptake are revealed with a high-fat mealAm J Physiol Endocrinol Metab2006 291E1115E1123

    Not in our library10.1152/ajpendo.00196.2006

  113. 113.

    Santosa S Hensrud DD Votruba SB Jensen MD The influence of sex and obesity phenotype on meal fatty acid metabolism before and after weight lossAm J Clin Nutr2008 8811341141

    Not in our library10.1093/ajcn/88.4.1134

  114. 114.

    Rebuffé-Scrive M Mårin P Björntorp P Effect of testosterone on abdominal adipose tissue in menInt J Obes1991 15791795

    Not in our library

  115. 115.

    Price TM O’Brien SN Welter BH George R Anandjiwala J Kilgore M Estrogen regulation of adipose tissue lipoprotein lipase–possible mechanism of body fat distributionAm J Obstet Gynecol1998 178101107

    Not in our library10.1016/s0002-9378(98)70634-9

  116. 116.

    Homma H Kurachi H Nishio Y Takeda T Yamamoto T Adachi K Morishige K Ohmichi M Matsuzawa Y Murata Y Estrogen suppresses transcription of lipoprotein lipase gene. Existence of a unique estrogen response element on the lipoprotein lipase promoterJ Biol Chem2000 2751140411411

    Not in our library10.1074/jbc.275.15.11404

  117. 117.

    Jensen MD Gender differences in regional fatty acid metabolism before and after meal ingestionJ Clin Invest1995 9622972303

    Not in our library10.1172/jci118285

  118. 118.

    Guo Z Hensrud DD Johnson CM Jensen MD Regional postprandial fatty acid metabolism in different obesity phenotypesDiabetes1999 4815861592

    Not in our library10.2337/diabetes.48.8.1586

  119. 119.

    Johnson JA Fried SK Pi-Sunyer FX Albu JB Impaired insulin action in subcutaneous adipocytes from women with visceral obesityAm J Physiol Endocrinol Metab2001 280E40E49

    Not in our library10.1152/ajpendo.2001.280.1.e40

  120. 120.

    Fried SK Tittelbach T Blumenthal J Sreenivasan U Robey L Yi J Khan S Hollender C Ryan AS Goldberg AP Resistance to the antilipolytic effect of insulin in adipocytes of African-American compared to Caucasian postmenopausal womenJ Lipid Res2010 5111931200

    Not in our library10.1194/jlr.p000935

  121. 121.

    Shadid S Koutsari C Jensen MD Direct free fatty acid uptake into human adipocytes in vivo: relation to body fat distributionDiabetes2007 5613691375

    Not in our library10.2337/db06-1680

  122. 122.

    Koutsari C Mundi MS Ali AH Jensen MD Storage rates of circulating free Fatty Acid into adipose tissue during eating or walking in humansDiabetes2012 61329338

    Not in our library10.2337/db11-0748

  123. 123.

    Ali AH Koutsari C Mundi M Stegall MD Heimbach JK Taler SJ Nygren J Thorell A Bogachus LD Turcotte LP Bernlohr D Jensen MD Free fatty acid storage in human visceral and subcutaneous adipose tissue: role of adipocyte proteinsDiabetes2011 6023002307

    Not in our library10.2337/db11-0219

  124. 124.

    Nielsen S Guo Z Ablu JB Klein S O’Brien PC Jensen MD Energy expenditure, sex, and endogenous fuel availability in humansJ Clin Invest2003 111981988

    Not in our library10.1172/jci16253

  125. 125.

    Horton TJ Pagliassotti MJ Hobbs K Hill JO Fuel metabolism in men and women during and after long-duration exerciseJ Appl Physiol1998 8518231832

    Not in our library10.1152/jappl.1998.85.5.1823

  126. 126.

    Karpe F Dickmann JR Frayn KN Fatty acids, obesity, and insulin resistance: time for a reevaluationDiabetes2011 6024412449

    Not in our library10.2337/db11-0425

  127. 127.

    Perseghin G Scifo P Pagliato E Battezzati A Benedini S Soldini L Testolin G Del Maschio A Luzi L Gender factors affect fatty acids-induced insulin resistance in nonobese humans: effects of oral steroidal contraceptionJ Clin Endocrinol Metab2001 8631883196

    Not in our library10.1210/jc.86.7.3188

  128. 128.

    Boden G Lebed B Schatz M Homko C Lemieux S Effects of acute changes of plasma free fatty acids on intramyocellular fat content and insulin resistance in healthy subjectsDiabetes2001 5016121617

    Not in our library10.2337/diabetes.50.7.1612

  129. 129.

    Koutsari C Basu R Rizza RA Nair KS Khosla S Jensen MD Nonoxidative free fatty acid disposal is greater in young women than menJ Clin Endocrinol Metab2011 96541547

    Not in our library10.1210/jc.2010-1651

  130. 130.

    Marinou K Adiels M Hodson L Frayn KN Karpe F Fielding BA Young women partition fatty acids towards ketone body production rather than VLDL-TAG synthesis, compared with young menBr J Nutr2011 105857865

    Not in our library10.1017/s0007114510004472

  131. 131.

    Jensen MD Johnson CM Contribution of leg and splanchnic free fatty acid (FFA) kinetics to postabsorptive FFA flux in men and womenMetabolism1996 45662666

    Not in our library10.1016/s0026-0495(96)90040-2

  132. 132.

    Nielsen S Guo Z Johnson CM Hensrud DD Jensen MD Splanchnic lipolysis in human obesityJ Clin Invest2004 11315821588

    Not in our library10.1172/jci21047

  133. 133.

    Wahrenberg H Lönnqvist F Arner P Mechanisms underlying regional differences in lipolysis in human adipose tissueJ Clin Invest1989 84458467

    Not in our library10.1172/jci114187

  134. 134.

    Jensen MD Cryer PE Johnson CM Murray MJ Effects of epinephrine on regional free fatty acid and energy metabolism in men and womenAm J Physiol1996 270E259E264

    Not in our library10.1152/ajpendo.1996.270.2.e259

  135. 135.

    Arner P Kriegholm E Engfeldt P Bolinder J Adrenergic regulation of lipolysis in situ at rest and during exerciseJ Clin Invest1990 85893898

    Not in our library10.1172/jci114516

  136. 136.

    Burguera B Proctor D Dietz N Guo Z Joyner M Jensen MD Leg free fatty acid kinetics during exercise in men and womenAm J Physiol Endocrinol Metab2000 278E113E117

    Not in our library10.1152/ajpendo.2000.278.1.e113

  137. 137.

    Merimee TJ Misbin RI Pulkkinen AJ Sex variations in free fatty acids and ketones during fasting: evidence for a role of glucagonJ Clin Endocrinol Metab1978 46414419

    Not in our library10.1210/jcem-46-3-414

  138. 138.

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    Arita Y Kihara S Ouchi N Takahashi M Maeda K Miyagawa J Hotta K Shimomura I Nakamura T Miyaoka K Kuriyama H Nishida M Yamashita S Okubo K Matsubara K Muraguchi M Ohmoto Y Funahashi T Matsuzawa Y Paradoxical decrease of an adipose-specific protein, adiponectin, in obesityBiochem Biophys Res Commun1999 2577983

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    Nishizawa H Shimomura I Kishida K Maeda N Kuriyama H Nagaretani H Matsuda M Kondo H Furuyama N Kihara S Nakamura T Tochino Y Funahashi T Matsuzawa Y Androgens decrease plasma adiponectin, an insulin-sensitizing adipocyte-derived proteinDiabetes2002 5127342741

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    Cnop M Havel PJ Utzschneider KM Carr DB Sinha MK Boyko EJ Retzlaff BM Knopp RH Brunzell JD Kahn SE Relationship of adiponectin to body fat distribution, insulin sensitivity and plasma lipoproteins: evidence for independent roles of age and sexDiabetologia2003 46459469

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    Pedersen SB Kristensen K Hermann PA Katzenellenbogen JA Richelsen B Estrogen controls lipolysis by up-regulating alpha2A-adrenergic receptors directly in human adipose tissue through the estrogen receptor alpha. Implications for the female fat distributionJ Clin Endocrinol Metab2004 8918691878

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    Dicker A Rydén M Näslund E Muehlen IE Wirén M Lafontan M Arner P Effect of testosterone on lipolysis in human pre-adipocytes from different fat depotsDiabetologia2004 47420428

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    Casabiell X Piñeiro V Peino R Lage M Camiña J Gallego R Vallejo LG Dieguez C Casanueva FF Gender differences in both spontaneous and stimulated leptin secretion by human omental adipose tissue in vitro: dexamethasone and estradiol stimulate leptin release in women, but not in menJ Clin Endocrinol Metab1998 8321492155

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    Xu Y Nedungadi TP Zhu L Sobhani N Irani BG Davis KE Zhang X Zou F Gent LM Hahner LD Khan SA Elias CF Elmquist JK Clegg DJ Distinct hypothalamic neurons mediate estrogenic effects on energy homeostasis and reproductionCell Metab2011 14453465

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    Faust IM Johnson PR Stern JS Hirsch J Diet-induced adipocyte number increase in adult rats: a new model of obesityAm J Physiol1978 235E279E286

    Not in our library10.1152/ajpendo.1978.235.3.e279

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    DiGirolamo M Fine JB Tagra K Rossmanith R Qualitative regional differences in adipose tissue growth and cellularity in male Wistar rats fed ad libitumAm J Physiol1998 274R1460R1467

    Not in our library10.1152/ajpregu.1998.274.5.r1460

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    Tchoukalova YD Koutsari C Votruba SB Tchkonia T Giorgadze N Thomou T Kirkland JL Jensen MD Sex- and depot-dependent differences in adipogenesis in normal-weight humansObesity (Silver Spring)2010 1818751880

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    Anderson LA McTernan PG Barnett AH Kumar S The effects of androgens and estrogens on preadipocyte proliferation in human adipose tissue: influence of gender and siteJ Clin Endocrinol Metab2001 8650455051

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    Gupta V Bhasin S Guo W Singh R Miki R Chauhan P Choong K Tchkonia T Lebrasseur NK Flanagan JN Hamilton JA Viereck JC Narula NS Kirkland JL Jasuja R Effects of dihydrotestosterone on differentiation and proliferation of human mesenchymal stem cells and preadipocytesMol Cell Endocrinol2008 2963240

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    Rice SP Zhang L Grennan-Jones F Agarwal N Lewis MD Rees DA Ludgate M Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) treatment in vitro inhibits adipogenesis in human omental but not subcutaneous adipose tissueMol Cell Endocrinol2010 3205157

    Not in our library10.1016/j.mce.2010.02.017

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    Rantalainen M Herrera BM Nicholson G Bowden R Wills QF Min JL Neville MJ Barrett A Allen M Rayner NW Fleckner J McCarthy MI Zondervan KT Karpe F Holmes CC Lindgren CM MicroRNA expression in abdominal and gluteal adipose tissue is associated with mRNA expression levels and partly genetically drivenPLoS One2011 6e27338

    Not in our library10.1371/journal.pone.0027338

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    Min JL Nicholson G Halgrimsdottir I Almstrup K Petri A Barrett A Travers M Rayner NW Mägi R Pettersson FH Broxholme J Neville MJ Wills QF Cheeseman J Allen M Holmes CC Spector TD Fleckner J McCarthy MI Karpe F Lindgren CM Zondervan KT GIANT Consortium MolPAGE ConsortiumCoexpression network analysis in abdominal and gluteal adipose tissue reveals regulatory genetic loci for metabolic syndrome and related phenotypesPLoS Genet2012 8e1002505

    Not in our library10.1371/journal.pgen.1002505

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