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Intracellular Pathogens: Host Immunity and Microbial Persistence Strategies

Aneesh Thakur, Heidi Mikkelsen, Gregers Jungersen

Journal of Immunology Research · 2019 · Review

doi:10.1155/2019/1356540

Abstract

Infectious diseases caused by pathogens including viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites are ranked as the second leading cause of death worldwide by the World Health Organization. Despite tremendous improvements in global public health since 1950, a number of challenges remain to either prevent or eradicate infectious diseases. Many pathogens can cause acute infections that are effectively cleared by the host immunity, but a subcategory of these pathogens called “intracellular pathogens” can establish persistent and sometimes lifelong infections. Several of these intracellular pathogens manage to evade the host immune monitoring and cause disease by replicating inside the host cells. These pathogens have evolved diverse immune escape strategies and overcome immune responses by residing and multiplying inside host immune cells, primarily macrophages. While these intracellular pathogens that cause persistent infections are phylogenetically diverse and engage in diverse immune evasion and persistence strategies, they share common pathogen type-specific mechanisms during host-pathogen interaction inside host cells. Likewise, the host immune system is also equipped with a diverse range of effector functions to fight against the establishment of pathogen persistence and subsequent host damage. This article provides an overview of the immune effector functions used by the host to counter pathogens and various persistence strategies used by intracellular pathogens to counter host immunity, which enables their extended period of colonization in the host. The improved understanding of persistent intracellular pathogen-derived infections will contribute to develop improved disease diagnostics, therapeutics, and prophylactics.

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From PubMed Central, U.S. National Library of Medicine, as current on Oct 18, 2026. Paragraph numbers are ours, so an answer can point at one.

1. Introduction

1Infectious diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites can be categorized into extracellular or intracellular pathogens from an immunopathological perspective. Most encounters with these pathogenic agents lead to an acute infection, followed by the development of clinical signs. These infections are relatively brief, and in a healthy host, following onset of appropriate immune response, the infection subsides with elimination of involved pathogens within days. Acute infections are the typical, expected course for bacteria like Streptococcus pneumonia and Haemophilus influenzae, both commensals of the nasal cavity or viruses like influenza virus and rhinovirus. However, some pathogens can evade elimination by the host immune system using various mechanisms and cause persistent infections, which might lead to lifelong, latent infections. Unlike an acute infection, a persistent infection is not cleared quickly and the pathogen, pathogen genome, or pathogen-derived proteins continue to be produced for long periods; e.g., an infectious Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus or Salmonella Typhi bacteria may be produced continuously or intermittently for months or years. Commensal microorganisms, which reside at mucosal surfaces, form a protective barrier that shields the host from microbial invaders. A compromised immune system, an altered microbiota, or breached skin or mucosal barriers allow these microorganisms the opportunity to cause infections. Their ability to persist and to be transmitted without detection gives such opportunistic pathogens a unique disease biology that warrants special attention. Persistent infections can be classified into chronic infections, if they are eventually cleared from the host and latent or slow infections, if they last the life of the host. In chronic infections, there is a high level of replication or high burden of the pathogen during the pathogen persistence, e.g., chronic Salmonella Typhi infection. In a latent infection, an initial acute infection is followed by a dormant phase and repeated spells of reactivation, which mostly results in the production of infectious agents but may or may not be accompanied by symptoms. Examples of latent viral infections include Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) and Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV), while latent bacteria include Mycobacterium tuberculosis and syphilis causing Treponema pallidum. In slow infections, a number of years intercede from the time of initial contact of the infectious agent, mostly viruses, until the appearance of noticeable symptoms, e.g., human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and in rare cases subacute sclerosing panencephalitis caused by measles virus, which normally is an acute infection. Intracellular pathogens can adopt one of these different patterns of infection in the host. Interestingly, many intracellular pathogens thrive inside one of the most efficient cell types of antimicrobial defense, namely, mononuclear phagocytes such as macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs). Alternatively, the endosomal compartment or the cytosol of host cells such as neutrophils, fibroblasts, or epithelial cells serves as important habitat for intracellular pathogens. By adopting this intracellular lifestyle, the pathogens gain access to otherwise restricted nutrient sources and enjoy rare competition from other microbes. In addition, their intracellular habitat protects them from direct attack by antibodies. Once inside the host cell, a pathogen must replicate without killing the host cell hastily and without disturbing host cell function and integrity to ensure its own prolonged survival. Over millions of years of coevolution with their hosts, pathogens have evolved various strategies for symbiosis and to evade killing by the host immune system. These evasion strategies of microbes have improved our knowledge of infection biology to a great deal for the development of suitable therapeutics and vaccines. Furthermore, it has contributed immensely to understanding of host-pathogen interactions in many persistent infections constituting a great burden of morbidity and mortality in human diseases.

2In this review, we discuss various host-induced immune mechanisms that are involved in the mediation of protection against microbial infections, and we address the current understanding of persistent intracellular infections, including mechanisms of their persistence and host-pathogen interaction.

2. Host Defense against Microbial Infections

3Intracellular persistent infections change the nature of the host, alter immune function and immunological protection, and predispose the host to other persistent infections. The immune system is an extraordinary diverse compilation of cells that comprise the two arms of the immune system, namely, innate and adaptive. Innate and adaptive immune systems are linked, and innate immune recognition controls activation of adaptive immune responses. The innate immune system constitutes the first line of host defense against pathogens and recognizes evolutionary conserved repetitive molecules on pathogens, named pathogen-associated molecular patterns through germline-encoded pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) such as Toll-like receptors (TLR), C-type lectin receptors, nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain- (NOD-) like receptors, and retinoic acid-inducible gene- (RIG-) I-like receptors. Innate immune defenses are mediated by complement proteins, phagocytic cells (monocytes, macrophages, and neutrophils), and natural killer (NK) cells, and the effector mechanisms of these cells do not induce immunological memory. Adaptive immunity is comprised of cell-mediated and humoral branches and has a broader and fine-tuned repertoire of recognition due to antigen variability and frequent mutations. The key features of the adaptive immune system are the immune effector functions, which are pathogen-specific owing to receptor rearrangement mechanisms such as somatic hypermutation (B cell receptor) and V(D) J recombination (both T and B cell receptor), immunological memory, and the regulation of host immune homeostasis and tolerance. In recent years, the accumulating scientific evidence shows that after infection or vaccination, innate immune cells such as monocytes, macrophages, or NK cells remember a previous exposure to microbial pathogens or antigens and undergo long-term functional and epigenetic reprogramming. These changes, described as “trained immunity,” lead to increased responsiveness during secondary infection, increased production of inflammatory mediators, and increased capacity of protection against infection through mechanisms independent of T or B cell adaptive responses. Although the specificity and the immunological memory of innate immune cells cannot match with the highly sophisticated adaptive immune response, the contribution of trained immunity to host defense against infection should not be underestimated. The concept of trained immunity has potential application for developing improved vaccines as well as modulation of adverse effects of inflammatory diseases. Figure 1 gives an overview of key host immune responses against microbial pathogens.

2.1. Cell-Mediated Immunity in Microbial Infections

4All immune responses are driven by T lymphocytes maturing in the thymus and B lymphocytes maturing in the follicles of secondary lymphoid tissues such as spleen and lymph nodes. Both lymphocyte lineages follow almost similar stages of development and activation; however, there is a remarkable diversity of effector functions. The various lymphocyte subsets display a large variation of cell surface signaling molecules, which are vital for differentiation, recognition, and cellular functions. Activation of antigen-specific T cells is a complex process and requires the help of antigen-presenting cells (APCs). Once activated, T cells can differentiate into distinct subsets and execute their effector functions (Table 1). While antibodies (produced by B cells matured into plasma cells, see Section 2.2) have the possibility to neutralize extracellular functions of microbial-derived molecules, cell-mediated immunity relies on the various T cells responding to the presence and presentation of microbial-derived molecules, typically peptides, and is unable to block the function of the antigenic molecule.

2.1.1. Intracellular Effector/Killing Mechanisms

5Professional phagocytes, such as macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells, recognize and internalize microorganisms through recognition by PRRs or by opsonizing antibodies binding to Fcγ receptors. This leads to a cascade of signaling events, remodeling, and focal exocytosis of endomembranes forming a phagosome. Maturation of the phagosome is characterized by changes in acidity and acquisition of GTPases, proteases, and other acid hydrolases and occurs through stages of early and late phagosome and the highly acidic phagolysosome formation. Microbicidal activity of the phagolysosome can be attributed to acidification, reactive toxic oxygen species (ROS), reactive nitrogen intermediates (RNI), antimicrobial proteins, and peptides. Antimicrobial proteins include secretory granules like lactoferrin, which interfere with the iron metabolism, while a membrane protein, natural resistance-associated macrophage protein 1, exerts bacteriostatic effects by extruding Fe2+, Zn2+, and Mn2+ from the phagosomal lumen. Antimicrobial peptides include defensins, cathelicidins, lysozymes, lipases, and proteases. Microbial degradation by lysosomal enzymes may also lead to generation of antigenic peptides suitable for presentation by MHC class II molecules and subsequent CD4+ T cell activation.

2.1.2. Proinflammatory Cytokines

6IFN-γ is a type II interferon and a key cytokine in intracellular infections that orchestrates many distinct cellular programs and signaling events resulting in heightened immune surveillance and immune function. IFN-γ coordinates a shift from innate to adaptive immunity through mechanisms such as promoting development of a Th1-type response by inducing IL-12 and IL-18 production, B cell isotype switching to IgG2a, and regulating leukocyte trafficking. IFN-γ also upregulates expression of MHC class I and class II molecules and promotes induction of cell-mediated immunity and activation of Th1 cells. Autophagy has been recognized as a key mechanism by which IFN-γ exerts control over intracellular pathogens such as M. tuberculosis, Toxoplasma gondii, Chlamydia trachomatis, Salmonella, and Listeria monocytogenes. The crucial role of IFN-γ in clearing intracellular infections has been demonstrated using either antibody-mediated neutralization assays, IFN-γ receptor α chain, or IFN-γ gene knockout (KO) mice for infections with M. tuberculosis, Chlamydia, Plasmodium, Francisella tularensis, Leishmania, and Rickettsia spp.. Moreover, IFN-γ therapy was found to improve the outcome of disease status in tuberculosis patients. In addition to CD4+ Th1 as the principle source of IFN-γ, CD8+ T cells also contribute to IFN-γ secretion in M. tuberculosis, Chlamydia, L. monocytogenes, Rickettsia, and F. tularensis infections. In viral infections, in addition to various effector mechanisms, IFN-γ also induce antiviral enzymes such as protein kinase dsRNA-regulated (PKR), dsRNA-specific adenosine deaminase, and guanylate-binding proteins as well as the enzymes involved in proapoptotic effects including PKR, death-associated proteins, FAS/FAS ligand, cathepsin D, and caspase 1. Despite the role of IFN-γ in protection against many intracellular infections, it was shown recently that protection mediated by CD4+ memory T cells from L. monocytogenes was mostly dependent on TNF-α, whereas IFN-γ was found to play only a minor role. Also, studies with tuberculosis (TB) infection suggest an alternative mechanism of protection other than IFN-γ. These findings emphasize that although IFN-γ is important for protection against various intracellular pathogens, this cytokine alone is not sufficient as a marker of protection. Besides IFN-γ, TNF-α also activates macrophages and adopts similar killing strategies against pathogens including inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), ROS, RNI, and autophagy. Moreover, TNF-α has a key role in granuloma formation and containment of disease in TB. Similar to IFN-γ, studies using KO mouse models deficient in either TNF-α or p55 TNF-α receptor have defined a central function for this cytokine in many intracellular bacterial infections such as M. tuberculosis, Salmonella, Chlamydia, Brucella, L. monocytogenes, and F. tularensis, and in viral infections such as HSV and HIV. However, in studies on Plasmodium infection, contradictory results were obtained regarding the protective role of TNF-α in malaria.

7Other proinflammatory cytokines that are involved in the defense against intracellular pathogens to various degrees are interleukin- (IL-) 1α, IL-2, IL-6, IL-8, IL-12, and IL-18. The cytokines IL-1α, IL-6, and IL-8 play a key role in innate response and macrophage activation during persistent intracellular infections such as in Mycobacterium, Chlamydia, Leishmania, Listeria, and HIV infection. IL-1α also potentiates IL-12-mediated induction of IFN-γ from NK cells during intracellular infections. IL-2 production in intracellular infections is associated with stimulation of cytotoxic T cells and differentiation as well as development of T cell immunological memory. IL-2 is involved in the maturation of regulatory T cells (Tregs), and IL-2 deprivation is associated with transient reduction in Tregs, which is essential for optimal T cell responses and host resistance to microbial pathogens. IL-12 and IL-18 are key cytokines regulating IFN-γ production during infection and serve as a bridge connecting innate and adaptive immunity. IL-18 maturation and release is promoted by caspase-1, a central mediator of innate immunity that in turn is activated by a multiprotein oligomer, termed the inflammasome. The inflammasome is a molecular complex, which is involved in the activation of inflammatory caspases; promotes the maturation and secretion of proinflammatory cytokines, IL-1β, and IL-18; and activates inflammatory responses. IL-12 and IL-18 in combination further increase IFN-γ levels from macrophages, NK cells, and T cells and thus are important cytokines in many persistent intracellular infections.

2.1.3. Conventional, Regulatory, and Unconventional T Cells

8T lymphocytes that express an αβ TCR as well as a coreceptor CD4 or CD8, i.e., the so-called conventional T cells recognizing antigens presented in a peptide-MHC complex, have a central role in protective and aberrant immunity against persistent intracellular infections. There are many subsets of CD4+ T cells, such as T-helper 1 (Th1), Th2, Th17, follicular helper (Tfh), and regulatory T cells (Tregs), and all these subsets cooperate or interfere with each other to control infection (Table 1). A CD4+ Th1 cell response is considered to have a protective role against M. tuberculosis infection due to production of cytokines such as IFN-γ or TNF-α, which recruit and activate innate immune cells, like monocytes and granulocytes. Th1 cells also play an important role in protective immunity against other persistent intracellular infections. Th17 cells have been found to be induced following infections with M. tuberculosis, M. bovis, Salmonella enterica, F. tularensis, L. monocytogenes, Leishmaniasis, and many viral infections such as influenza, hepatitis B virus (HBV), and HIV. The IL-23/Th17 pathway was found to mediate inflammatory responses in intracellular pathogens, but was not critical for protection against disease as IL-17RKO and IL-23KO mice were not found to be more susceptible to infection with M. tuberculosis or S. enterica compared to the wild type. However, other mouse studies show that absence of the IL-23/Th17 pathway increases susceptibility to F. tularensis, Chlamydia muridarum, and M. bovis bacillus Calmette–Guérin. Similarly, IL-17RKO and IL-23KO mice have reduced neutrophil recruiting chemokines such as CXCL-1, -2, -5, and -8 in the liver and were more susceptible to L. monocytogenes infection. In HBV patients, Th17 cell frequency was associated with disease progression and liver injury. However, increased frequencies of IL-17/IL-22 cells were observed in chronic HBV patients but without IL-17 correlation with liver fibrosis. Th17 cells have been found to be involved in the disease progression and pathogenesis in HIV and Simian immunodeficiency virus infections by influencing innate immune response and limiting chronic inflammation. Thus, Th17 cells have diverse roles spanning from cell-mediated direct protective and indirect helper effects, which are important for intracellular immunity. CD8+ T cells or CTLs remove cells infected with intracellular pathogens as well as cancerous cells through contact-dependent lysis and release of cytokines. It is well-known that CTLs are critical for clearance of many viral infections, but their exhaustion during chronic viral infections is accompanied with impaired function and poor survival. Various studies suggest that IFN-γ production by CTLs is required for the clearance of intracellular bacterial infections such as M. tuberculosis, C. trachomatis, L. monocytogenes, Brucella, T. gondii, F. tularensis, and Rickettsia. Likewise, perforin and granzyme deficiency has been associated with increased disease pathology in chronic infections with viruses, bacteria, and parasites.

9CD4+FoxP3+CD25+ and CD8+ Tregs play a critical role in maintaining immunological tolerance to self-antigens and in suppressing excessive immune responses deleterious to the host. As an example, CD4+ Tregs were isolated and correlated with apoptotic activity from human lepromatous leprosy patients. In addition, patients with active TB were found to have increased frequencies of CD4+ Tregs producing IL-10. In a mouse model of Leishmania donovani infection, CD4+Foxp3+ Tregs play an important role in delaying the development of splenic pathology and restricting leukocyte expansion. In malaria, Tregs impede host-mediated protective immunity through CTL-associated protein-4 (CTLA-4) that delays parasite clearance. Similarly, increased numbers of circulating CD4+ Tregs have been described in viral infections such as human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV). In TB and HCV, HCMV, and EBV infections, CD8+ Tregs induction inhibits effector T cell responses and pathogen clearance chiefly through TGF-β.

10Another category of T cells, the so-called unconventional T cells, have been identified in persistent intracellular infections. These T cells are non-MHC-restricted T cells, which recognize nonpolymorphic antigen-presenting molecules and have a more limited TCR repertoire. The unconventional T cells include γδ T cells, NK cells, NKT cells, invariant NKT (iNKT) cells, and mucosal-associated invariant T cells (MAIT) cells. γδ T cells have increasingly been identified to play an important role in host defense against persistent intracellular infections and serves as a bridge between innate and adaptive immunity. γδ T cell response to infection is staged and may occur before or after involvement of αβ T cells. γδ T cells in these immune stages perform different functions due to differential production of Th1 (early stage)/Th2 (late stage) cytokines, which has been observed in infections with influenza A, Schistosoma mansoni, and L. monocytogenes. Additionally, γδ TCR-deficient mice were found to have 100% mortality following Nocardia asteroides intranasal challenge due to poor neutrophilic infiltration in the lungs, which could be caused by decreased IL-17 production. Depletion of IL-17A-producing γδ T cells resulted in increased bacterial growth due to poor generation of antigen-specific CTL responses. Similarly, increased susceptibility to B. abortus infection was observed on depletion of γδ T cells in mice compared to wild types. In advanced stages of L. monocytogenes infection, depletion of γδ T cells was characterized by liver necrosis, secondary inflammation, and disruption of macrophage homeostasis mediated by TNF-α+CD8+ T cells and reduced IL-10 and IL-17 production by γδ T cells. Functional loss of γδ T cells as a result of upregulation of the FAS and FAS ligand has been correlated with disease progression in M. tuberculosis and HIV-1 infection. Thus, the role of γδ T cells in persistent intracellular infections appears to be a regulation of inflammation and subsequent pathogen elimination. NK cells are cytotoxic lymphocytes and are important connectors between innate and adaptive immunity via production of cytokines and interaction with APCs. The role of NK cells has been documented in the control of tumors and parasitic and early viral infections. Defects in NK cell activity, such as decreased production of IFN-γ or cytotoxicity, have been associated with many viral infections. In the case of HIV infection, NK cell number and function decrease with disease progression. A role for NK cells has been identified in many protozoal infections including leishmaniasis and malaria. NK cell-derived IFN-γ differentially regulates innate resistance in mice infected with intracellular pathogens. Despite the redundant functions of NK cells in several conditions, NK cells also act as regulatory cells during inflammation and influence adaptive immune responses. NKT cells have an immunoregulatory function promoting cell-mediated immunity to infectious pathogens as well as tumors. In intracellular infections, iNKT cells are characterized by release of cytokines such as IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, IL-17, chemokines, and rapid effector functions as in Salmonella, Ehrlichia, M. tuberculosis, Trypanosoma cruzi, and many viral infections. A significant impairment of iNKT cells has been reported in chronic HIV type 1 infection. In influenza A virus infection, IL-22 production by iNKT cells was involved in control of lung epithelial damage but had no direct effect on viral replication. In chronic HBV patients, however, restoring the number of circulating iNKT cells resulted in control of viral replication accompanied with higher expression of CCR5 and CCR6. Contrary to these positive effects, iNKT cells were found to have a detrimental role in the pathology following experimental dengue virus infection in mice. Distinct iNKT cell subsets are induced during intracellular bacterial infections leading to differential adaptive immune responses and control of infection as has been observed in Chlamydophila pneumoniae infection displayed by IFN-γ production by iNKT cells and by IL-4 production in C. muridarum infection. In M. tuberculosis infection, increased CD8+ iNKTs were correlated with favorable disease outcome post-BCG vaccination. A role for MAIT cells in immune protection against intracellular infections has been demonstrated, which is consistent with the pathogens sharing the riboflavin pathway and producing riboflavin-derived antigens. In M. tuberculosis infection, MAIT cell levels are reduced in peripheral blood and lungs of patients with active pulmonary TB. Similarly, in HCV, HBV, and HIV infection, MAIT cells are depleted from the blood. This depletion was accompanied with expression of tissue homing markers and detection of MAIT cells in affected tissues, which suggests that these cells are recruited to the sites of infection. The depletion of MAIT cells in mice impedes protection against M. tuberculosis, F. tularensis, S. enterica, H. pylori, Legionella spp., and influenza virus elucidating their role in protective immunity.

11Both conventional and unconventional T cells complement each other during host immune responses against persistent intracellular infections. While conventional T cells mostly mediate antigen-specific functions and immunological memory of the cell-mediated immunity, unconventional T cells have a limited TCR diversity but respond very rapidly to pathogenic assaults. A full spectrum of cell-mediated immune responses encompassing conventional, unconventional, and regulatory T cells determines the immunological outcome in persistent intracellular infections where the evolution of pathogens has led to diverse escape mechanisms to establish persistence in the host.

2.2. Humoral Immunity in Microbial Infections

12Humoral immunity is mediated through antibodies produced by B lymphocytes, which are also APCs, matured into plasma cells. B cells and antibodies contribute significantly to shape the immune response to and/or induce protection against many persistent intracellular pathogens with the important distinction from cell-mediated immunity, that antibodies may functionally block the antigenic target. B cells undergo class switching and affinity maturation in the germinal centers to form antibodies of isotypes such as IgG, IgA, and IgE, which mediate their protective effects via neutralization, opsonization, and complement activation. Neutralization by antibodies is an important classical effector mechanism against viruses and is a key correlate of protection for many infections. Recently identified nonclassical antibody functions include direct antimicrobial activity, alteration of signaling by engaging FCR, immunomodulation, and modulation of microbial physiology. Previously, it was believed that immunoglobulins could not enter infected cells and thus do not participate in combating intracellular bacterial infections. However, in L. monocytogenes infection, the anti-listeriolysin O antibody neutralizes listeriolysin toxin and protects the host from infection. A comparison between the antibody profiles of latently versus actively M. tuberculosis infected individuals also points to a functional role of antibodies in the control of TB, and naturally occurring IgM from B1 cells have been reported to induce innate disease resistance against intracellular infection with influenza virus in mouse models. In addition to the antigen specificity of antibodies, the different Fc variations may also have both pro- and anti-inflammatory functions and enhance microbial clearance through complement activation or idiotype-anti-idiotype interactions. The cellular basis for these properties of antibodies is associated with ligation to stimulatory and inhibitory FCRs. In line with this, FCRs were shown to be key elements in protective responses against intracellular pathogens chiefly through oxidative burst, antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity, and induction of T cell responses by cytokines for infections with M. tuberculosis, C. trachomatis, S. typhimurium, F. tularensis, Leishmania major, Legionella pneumophila, L. monocytogenes, and T. gondii. A complete T cell independent humoral immune response mediated by B cells and antibodies was even demonstrated in Ehrlichia muris infection. In addition, low secreted IgA (sIgA) was associated with disease pathology in polymeric-Ig receptor-deficient mice, highlighting the role of sIgA in protection against persistent pathogens. In chronic intracellular infections, the same antibody may be proinflammatory or anti-inflammatory depending on the host and the stage of infection; e.g., during Cryptococcus neoformans infection, administration of IgG1 before or after the onset of infection can result in anti- or proinflammatory effect, respectively. It thus appears that the protection mediated by antibodies cannot be defined solely by molecular structure and glycosylation of antibodies but also depends on components of host as well as the pathogen and the stage of infection.

3. Mechanisms of Microbial Persistence

13One characteristic of intracellular pathogens is their ability to maintain infection in the host even in the presence of innate and adaptive immune responses. In some cases, persistent intracellular infections are asymptomatic, although the infection can pose a risk to the host, especially if the disease is reactivated from an innocuous state of dormancy. Persistent infections can be divided into two groups. One includes those pathogens, which are kept in check by adaptive immune responses in a state of dormancy but are not completely removed from the host, such as M. tuberculosis and S. enterica. The second group includes opportunistic pathogens that reside among commensal flora in the mucosa without inducing adaptive immune responses in healthy hosts, but are capable of establishing active and threatening infection in immunocompromised hosts, such as Neisseria. Thus, there is always an intimate crosstalk between the host and the pathogen, and the pathogens have evolved numerous anti-immune strategies for continuous lifelong survival to escape host immune elimination by overcoming both innate and adaptive immunity. This balance of host immune response and pathogen counter-defense contributes to the complexity of persistent infections. Figure 2 summarizes the mechanisms of persistence of selected intracellular pathogens.

14Despite the diversity, there are several general mechanisms for subversion of host immune responses that are shared between microbial pathogens. These can be divided into two broad groups: (a) evasion of host immune recognition such as modulation of microbial surfaces, secretion of immunomodulators, antigenic variation, and hiding in safe target cells or tissues (Table 2) and (b) modulation and suppression of host immune responses such as evasion of phagocytosis, innate immune receptors, complement system, cytokines, or chemokines; inhibition of apoptosis; resistance to host effector mechanisms; and induction of inappropriate immune responses such as immunosuppression and induction of Tregs (Table 3). Strategies adopted by persistent microbial pathogens is a broad topic, and reviewing it comprehensively is more suitable for a full book, so we have chosen to highlight some key mechanisms, which the pathogens use to ensure their prolonged survival.

3.1.1. Surface Immunomodulation

15The external surface of microbial pathogens is the first interface of pathogen and host interactions. This interface provides numerous opportunities for both pathogen and host to modulate and shift the immune equilibrium in their favor. Pathogens avoid immune detection by secreting immunomodulators from infected cells, including proteins and toxins, and express receptors and inhibitors, modifying their own surface molecules/ligands. Some viruses have evolved viral cell-surface proteins that mimic the structure as well as function of host cell receptors; e.g., herpes and poxviruses encode over 40 viral proteins that hijack transmembrane G-protein coupled-receptor signaling networks of the host. Bacterial pathogens have evolved ways to alter the TLR agonists on their surfaces such as lipid A, flagella, and peptidoglycan. Many bacterial pathogens modify lipid A to avoid TLR4 detection and include Salmonella, Neisseria, and Yersinia. In addition, some bacterial pathogens have evolved methods to avoid processing of peptidoglycan-derived muropeptides and their detection by the cytosolic receptors, NOD1 and NOD2 proteins. Peptidoglycan plays an important role in the pathogenesis of many persistent intracellular infections.

3.1.2. Secretion of Immunomodulators

16Persistent bacterial pathogens have developed a secretion system to deliver virulence factors such as toxins and effectors interfering with apoptosis into the host cell, thereby enhancing intracellular survival. Out of seven such secretion systems, type III (T3SS) (used by Chlamydia trachomatis and Salmonella typhimurium) and type IV secretion systems (T4SS) (used by Legionella and Brucella) are the most widely studied. M. tuberculosis uses a specialized secretion system, Esx secretion systems (ESX-1, ESX-3, and ESX-5), to deliver major T cell antigens ESAT-6 and CFP-10 into the host. Similarly, secretion systems have been described for gram-positive bacteria, e.g., Ess system of Staphylococcus aureus and the Yuk/Yue system of Bacillus subtilis. Ess plays a key role in virulence of S. aureus allowing it to persist, establish staphylococcal abscesses, and evade the host immune response. The Yuk/Yue system of Bacillus subtilis mediates YukE protein secretion and is homologous to Ess proteins of S. aureus. In the case of viruses, secreted viral immunomodulators mimic a wide range of host molecules including cytokines, chemokines, interferons, and complement and inflammatory cascades. These secreted viral immunomodulatory proteins are excellent targets for developing novel immunotherapeutic strategies.

3.1.3. Antigen Variation

17Antigenic variation is another classical method adopted by persistent pathogens to avoid immune responses especially the adaptive immune responses. Among bacterial pathogens, Neisseria is one of the best examples for antigenic variation. The pathogenic Neisseria have three antigenically or phase-variable major surface determinants: the opacity (Opa) outer membrane proteins, which govern bacterial adhesion and uptake into host cells; lipooligosaccharide (LOS), which is present in the outer membrane and is involved in host interactions; and type IV pilus (Tfp), which is involved in cellular adherence. There are up to 11 antigenically different Opa proteins and 12 recognized LOS immunotypes that are turned on and off independently and exhibit multiple combinations. Tfp antigenic variation relies on a programmed homologous recombination system to express antigenically distinct peptide sequences. Variant surface glycoprotein (VSG), the major surface component of the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei, is another example of antigenic variation. VSG exists in the blood and tissues of its mammalian host, but during an infection, some T. brucei parasites will switch their VSG to a new and antigenically distinct variant, which results in a typical parasitemia in the infected host. Similarly, RNA viruses use antigenic variation for evading host immune responses through the mechanisms of antigenic drift and shift as seen with HCV, HIV, and influenza virus. DNA viruses, both single, e.g., parvovirus, and double-stranded, e.g., cytomegalovirus, exhibit mutations to permit selective escape from the host immunity.

3.1.4. Subversion of Host Defense and Hiding

18Successful pathogens thwart all or most host immune defenses to remodel their intracellular habitat into a safe compartment. Once inside professional phagocytes, pathogens can still reach a stage of persistence if they manage to counter antimicrobial effector mechanisms, escape the phagolysosome, or modify their intracellular habitat into a safe niche; e.g., Yersinia pestis uses its T3SS to inject Yersinia outer proteins that counter multiple signaling responses initiated by phagocytic receptors. Other bacterial pathogens avoid killing after phagocytosis by three strategies: (i) escape from phagosome, (ii) prevention of phagosome-lysosome fusion, and (iii) survival inside the phagolysosome. The first evasion strategy is adopted by Listeria and Rickettsia spp.. L. monocytogenes is considered as the phagosomal escape artist as it uses a sophisticated effector mechanism through listeriolysin, phospholipases, and an effector protein ActA, which causes breakdown of the phagosome and escape of bacteria into the cytosol. M. tuberculosis and Salmonella use the second strategy for persistence. Salmonella uses its T3SS called Spi/Ssa that exports the SPI-2 pathogenicity island-encoded SpiC protein into the host cell cytoplasm and efficiently blocks phagosome-lysosome fusion. In comparison, M. tuberculosis uses a combined strategy by employing a range of protein and lipid effectors such as SapM, ZmpA, kinases, and lipoarabinomannan, which deplete phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate from early phagosomes and prevent phagolysosome formation. In addition, mycobacteria use ESX secretion system to prevent phagolysosomal fusion. Finally, pathogens such as Salmonella, Leishmania, Staphylococci, and Coxiella can survive and even replicate inside the acidic and hydrolytic environment of the phagolysosome. Salmonella uses the PhoP/PhoQ regulatory system for survival, while Leishmania, Coxiella, and Francisella in addition to replication can draw nutrients at an acidic pH of the phagolysosome. Staphylococcus aureus employs mechanisms such as perturbation of macrophage phagolysosome formation and inhibition of neutrophil myeloperoxidase. Viruses usually subvert lysis by phagocytic cells by preventing iNOS induction, which is under the control of NF-κB and STAT-1. A range of virus-encoded proteins have been identified that inhibit NF-κB activation or kinases. However, some viruses maintain a balance between NF-κB activation and suppression to maintain a state of latency, e.g., HSV. Bacterial pathogens, on the other hand, use proteins of secretion systems to modulate NF-κB signaling, e.g., T3SS protein YopJ in Yersinia, AvrA in S. enterica, SseL in S. typhimurium, and T6SS effectors and a heat shock protein ClpB in Francisella tularensis. Other bacterial effector proteins, which have been identified, are CP0236 in C. pneumoniae, ChlaDub1 in C. trachomatis, LegK1 in Legionella pneumophila, and IKK in Toxoplasma gondii.

3.2.1. Subversion of Innate Immune Receptors

19One of the mechanisms for subversion of host defense by pathogens is the evasion of PRR signaling. Viruses have evolved several mechanisms to avoid detection by PRRs or to inhibit the activation of PRRs and/or their downstream signaling cascades. Earlier evidence came from studies where some viruses encoded proteins to target TLR signaling, such as pox viruses through protein A52R and hepatitis viruses through TRIF protein. Since then, various TLRs have been shown to be involved in responses to viral infections including TLR1, -2, -3, -4, -6, -7, -8, and -9. Many RNA viruses replicate in the cytoplasm and are detected by the cytoplasmic PRRs, MDA5, and RIG-I, which are targets for viral evasion. RNA viruses such as flaviviruses, which include dengue virus and HCV, induce membrane modifications, which prevent their recognition by RIG-I and MDA5 and result in poor induction of type I IFN, while enteroviruses including poliovirus cleave RIG-I and MDA5 by proteases, 2Apro and 3Cpro, are required for viral polyprotein processing. Influenza virus targets host TRIM25 and RIPLET proteins, which are required for the full activation of RIG-I. DNA viruses replicate within the nucleus and are detected in the nucleus or in the cytoplasm by IFI16 or cGAS, respectively. In response, DNA viruses have evolved various strategies to evade these receptors; e.g., HSV-1 produces a protein, ICPo, that ubiquitinates IFI16 and results in its degradation by the ubiquitin proteasome and eventually loss of IFN induction. In HIV-1 infection, the viral cDNA is protected within the viral capsid, which prevents its exposure to cGAS in the cytoplasm. In addition to above, viruses also use other strategies such as targeting adaptor proteins and their kinases during downstream signaling of antiviral innate immune pathways, inhibiting transcription factors involved in IFN induction, and evading IFN-stimulated genes. Among bacterial pathogens, there are only a few, which directly inhibit the PRR signaling. Yersinia pestis is a typical example, where the virulence antigen, LcrV, specifically hijacks the TLR2/6 pathway to stimulate IL-10 production, which blocks host protective inflammatory responses. Some bacterial pathogens target intracellular signal transduction pathways such as the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling axis, TGF-β-activated kinase 1 (TAK1), and the NF-κB pathway. The effector protein YopJ of Y. pestis targets several MAPK and TAK1. Similarly, Salmonella effector protein AvrA mediates bacterial intracellular survival during infection by inhibiting MAPK4 and MAPK7. Bacteria also subvert host immune responses by directly interacting with inhibitory receptors such as the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibitory motif- (ITIM-) bearing inhibitory receptor or through virulence factors that mimic intermediates of host inhibitory signaling. For instance, S. aureus targets the ITIM-bearing inhibitory receptor paired Ig-like receptor B (PIR-B) to reduce TLR-induced inflammatory cytokine release by macrophages during infection. Helicobacter pylori releases effector proteins, which contain ITIM-like motifs within host cells and suppress immune responses. On the other hand, Yersinia and Salmonella impair inflammatory signaling by secreting effectors that resemble host cellular protein tyrosine phosphatases. The blockade of these inhibitory receptors may be a novel strategy to improve the host-mediated immunity against persistent pathogens.

3.2.2. Evasion of Autophagy

20Autophagy is a process that engulfs and delivers cytoplasmic constituents for lysosomal degradation and is a target for maintaining persistence by intracellular pathogens. L. monocytogenes evades autophagic recognition by proteins ActA and internalin K while L. pneumophila effector protein RavZ inhibits autophagy through irreversible Atg8 protein deconjugation attached on autophagosome membranes. Some intracellular bacterial pathogens, e.g., Anaplasma phagocytophilum, lives within an autophagosome and inhibits autophagosomal-lysosomal fusion by secreting protein Anaplasma translocated substrate 1 that hijacks the Beclin 1-Atg14L autophagy initiation pathway. Viruses are very adept in evading autophagy early during autophagosome formation and during autophagosomal-lysosomal fusion. For example, TRIM proteins were found to regulate autophagy by HSV-1 and influenza A virus via the TRIM23-TBK1-p62 axis as a key component of selective autophagy. Picornaviruses including poliovirus and food-and-mouth disease virus subvert autophagy and generate unique replication organelles for their multiplication. Similarly, HCV triggers Golgi fragmentation and autophagy through the immunity-related GTPase M. Evasion of autophagy is also used by RNA viruses that replicate in the nucleus, e.g., HIV, which inhibits autophagosome maturation via Tat, Nef, and Vpu proteins.

3.2.3. Inhibition of Complement Proteins

21The complement system is another target for persistent pathogens aiming at evading the host innate immune response. Viruses like HCMV, HIV, and human lymphoma virus type I incorporate complement inhibitor proteins DAF, MCP, and CD59 in their envelope during virus release from the cell while others like poxvirus and the herpesviruses encode homologues of complement inhibitors. A number of bacteria express surface proteins that can bind C4BP (classical/lectin pathway) or factor H (alternative pathway) and thereby prevent their cofactor functions in factor I-mediated cleavage of C3b/C4b and subsequent complement activation. Among persistent bacterial pathogens, Neisseria is a classical example for evading complement activation. N. gonorrhea expresses two kinds of porin molecules, Por1A and Por1B, that binds complement component C4BP.

3.2.4. Inhibition of Cytokines and Chemokines

22Inhibiting the production of cytokines, such as type I and II interferons, TNFs, and IL-1, and chemokines is another way to escape host immune responses, and such strategies have been very well documented for viral infections. In addition, large DNA viruses (herpes and poxviruses) are able to express surface proteins that mimic cytokine and cytokine receptors. Other viruses modulate the chemokine network by producing their own versions of chemokines or chemokine receptors or by secreting chemokine-binding proteins, not found in the host. Persistent bacterial pathogens can manipulate the cytokine network by producing effector proteins, which inhibit cytokine release such as TNF-α release in Yersinia enterocolitica and Brucella suis and IL-2 in S. typhimurium, while Legionella pneumophila degrades IL-2 by producing a Zn metalloproteinase.

3.2.5. Inhibition of Adaptive Immune Responses

23Adaptive immune responses are critical for the clearance of bacterial and viral infections. However, persistent pathogens have acquired various mechanisms to counteract the adaptive immune response at various levels. In viral infections, NK cells are part of the first line of cellular defense, which can be countered through expression of viral proteins blocking either NK-cell receptor function, cytokine release, or MHC-I homologs. HBV suppresses NK cell function by upregulating the inhibitory molecule, T cell immunoglobulin, and mucin protein-3 (Tim-3) on NK cells while HCV inhibits NK cell activity by crosslinking CD81 with its viral glycoprotein E2. Viral interference with proteasome cleavage, translocation through the transporters associated with antigen processing, and presentation through MHC class I as well as MHC class II have been documented for persistent infections with HIV, HSV, HPV, HCMV, and adenovirus. Viruses can interfere with DC functions in many ways and modulate their effector functions. Viruses also evade neutralizing antibodies; e.g., cell-to-cell spread of HCV prevents antibody-virion contact, and mutations in glycoproteins of both HCV and HPV reduce host antibody reactivity. Among bacterial pathogens, N. gonorrhea manipulates host immune responses by inhibition of T lymphocyte activation and proliferation (mediated by the Opa protein). A vacuolating immunotoxin, VacA, produced by H. pylori, inhibits proliferation of T lymphocytes via the TCR-IL-2 signaling pathway. Other bacterial pathogens reduce MHC antigen presentation and evade host T cell response; e.g., M. tuberculosis-infected cells export antigen for uptake and presentation by uninfected bystander cells, which reduce MHC class II antigen presentation by infected cells and limits host-mediated CD4+ T cell control. B. abortus infection inhibits the expression of MHC-II molecules by IL-6-dependent inhibition of transactivator (CIITA), which prevents its recognition by T cells establishing a chronic infection. Another evasion strategy adopted by bacterial pathogens is to secrete enzymes such as IgA proteases that degrade immunoglobulins; e.g., secreted IgA protease from N. meningitidis is transported to the nucleus of infected cells where it cleaves the p65/RelA component of the NF-κB complex. Immune checkpoint inhibitors, e.g., CTLA-4, programmed death- (PD-) 1, lymphocyte-activation gene 3 (LAG-3), and Tim-3, are today well recognized in the immune evasion of cancers. Microbial pathogens can also exploit immune checkpoint inhibitors to limit host-mediated antigen-specific immune responses; e.g., S. aureus modulates PD-ligand 1 to evade immune activation. In Plasmodium falciparum infection, Tim-3 on immune cells negatively regulates cell-mediated immunity, the blockade of which improves protection against malaria. Similarly, Tim-3 mediates T cell exhaustion during M. tuberculosis infection. PD-1 has been implicated in the regulation of T cell responses during HIV, HCV, and HBV infection. Immune checkpoint blockade may be an important novel strategy for managing chronic infections, which presently lack effective therapies or vaccines.

3.2.6. Suppression of Cell Death

24Induction of cell death is one of the canonical strategies used by phagocytes to clear intracellular pathogens by expelling microbes from their replicative niche. Successful intracellular pathogens modulate different forms of cell death such as apoptosis, pyroptosis, necrosis/necroptosis, and NETosis, to evade host immune defense. Apoptosis is an active programmed cell death, which does not induce inflammation but is dependent on sequential proteolytic activation of caspases. Cellular proteins involved in the control of apoptosis, such as FLIP, caspase inhibitor, selenoproteins, ligands of the TNF family, Bcl-2, and p53, are targeted by viral antiapoptotic mechanisms such as inhibition of multiple caspases and TNF-induced apoptosis, inactivation of p53, and homologs of Bcl-2. A number of virus-encoded proteins interfere with caspase activation or inhibit caspase activity and avoid apoptosis of host cells for their survival; e.g., the HSV-1 latency-associated transcript blocks apoptosis and inhibits caspase-3 activation. Bacterial infections may drive the antiapoptotic pathways through production of bacterial toxins as in Listeria infection or secretion of effector proteins and T3SS as in Salmonella and Yersinia infections or by blocking proapoptotic proteins Bax and Bak or activate caspase-3 as in Chlamydia infection. However, recently it was reported that although C. trachomatis-infected cells are protected from apoptosis at early and mid-stages of infection, they remain susceptible to the induction of other cell death modalities, especially necrosis. It was also shown that this necrotic death occurred with similar kinetics as apoptosis in uninfected cells, which indicates that C. trachomatis fails to significantly prolong the lifespan of its host cell when exposed to proapoptotic insults. Rickettsia rickettsii inhibits apoptosis through induction of NF-κB-mediated events, and as a result, the infected host cell remains at the site of infection. Coxiella burnetii effector protein CaeA interferes with the intrinsic and extrinsic apoptosis pathway. Necrosis is a caspase-independent pathological cell death, which triggers inflammation and results in extensive tissue damage. M. tuberculosis infects macrophages and induces necrosis to avoid immune response and to disseminate. Necroptosis is a form of regulated necrosis that depends on activation of the necrosome, which is a protein complex in which receptor-interacting protein kinase 3 (RIPK3) is activated. Vaccinia, influenza, and HSV-1 are among many viruses that induce necroptosis via their effector proteins binding to RIPK3. Pyroptosis is a highly inflammatory form of programmed cell death mediated by gasdermin and requires the caspase-1 activation in inflammasomes. Various studies have demonstrated pyroptotic death of macrophages and dendritic cells infected with intracellular pathogens as one of the key mechanisms for host survival.

4. Conclusion

25During infections, there is a constant combat between pathogens that attempt to establish and maintain an infection and host immune defense mechanisms to prevent such establishment. The outcome of this battle is determined by many factors related to host, pathogen, and the immune responses. In this review, we highlight host immune defense mechanisms against microbial infections and the various anti-immune strategies adopted by the intracellular pathogens to thwart this immune defense and establish persistent infections. New technological advancements in the field of immunology such as genomics, proteomics, RNA sequencing, and imaging have allowed track of intracellular persistent infections and the associated cellular changes. Combining all these robust immunological techniques with animal models of infectious diseases, including transgenic and humanized animal models, provides detailed information of chemical, epigenetic, and cellular interactions that occur during persistent infections. Although recent progress has brought us closer to understanding the mechanisms of pathogen persistence and counteractive host immunity, a lot more is still to be explored to completely translate the host-pathogen interactions during persistent intracellular infections. An interdisciplinary approach will be critical to bridging the knowledge gaps in infection dynamics during persistent infections. With the global presence of emerging and reemerging infectious diseases and classical infections continuously present, an improved understanding of this knowledge is crucial for developing improved disease diagnostics, interventional strategies, or novel vaccines.

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Not in our library10.1002/hep.25951
61.
Fogg M., Murphy J. R., Lorch J., Posner M., Wang F. Therapeutic targeting of regulatory T cells enhances tumor-specific CD8+ T cell responses in Epstein–Barr virus associated nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Virology. 2013;441(2):107-113.
Not in our library10.1016/j.virol.2013.03.016
62.
Enhanced protection to Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in IL‐10‐deficient mice is accompanied by early and enhanced Th1 responses in the lung · 2010
No notice
63.
Tang-Feldman Y. J., Lochhead G. R., Lochhead S. R., Yu C., Pomeroy C. Interleukin-10 repletion suppresses pro-inflammatory cytokines and decreases liver pathology without altering viral replication in murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV)-infected IL-10 knockout mice. Inflammation Research. 2011;60(3):233-243.
Not in our library10.1007/s00011-010-0259-4
64.
Windish H. P., Lin P. L., Mattila J. T., et al. Aberrant TGF-β signaling reduces T regulatory cells in ICAM-1-deficient mice, increasing the inflammatory response to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Journal of Leukocyte Biology. 2009;86(3):713-725.
Not in our library10.1189/jlb.1208740
65.
Li C., Sanni L. A., Omer F., Riley E., Langhorne J. Pathology of Plasmodium chabaudi chabaudi infection and mortality in interleukin-10-deficient mice are ameliorated by anti-tumor necrosis factor alpha and exacerbated by anti-transforming growth factor β antibodies. Infection and Immunity. 2003;71(9):4850-4856.
Not in our library10.1128/iai.71.9.4850-4856.2003
66.
Walker D. H., Olano J. P., Feng H. M. Critical role of cytotoxic T lymphocytes in immune clearance of rickettsial infection. Infection and Immunity. 2001;69(3):1841-1846.
Not in our library10.1128/iai.69.3.1841-1846.2001
67.
Brandão A. P. M. S., Oliveira F. S., Carvalho N. B., et al. Host susceptibility to Brucella abortus infection is more pronounced in IFN-γ knockout than IL-12/β2-microglobulin double-deficient mice. Clinical and Developmental Immunology. 2012;2012:7.
Not in our library10.1155/2012/589494
68.
Variability in Tuberculosis Granuloma T Cell Responses Exists, but a Balance of Pro- and Anti-inflammatory Cytokines Is Associated with Sterilization · 2015
No notice
69.
Nogueira C. V., Zhang X., Giovannone N., Sennott E. L., Starnbach M. N. Protective immunity against Chlamydia trachomatis can engage both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells and bridge the respiratory and genital mucosae. The Journal of Immunology. 2015;194(5):2319-2329.
Not in our library10.4049/jimmunol.1402675
70.
Martin M. D., Badovinac V. P. Antigen-dependent and -independent contributions to primary memory CD8 T cell activation and protection following infection. Scientific Reports. 2015;5(1, article 18022).
Not in our library10.1038/srep18022
71.
Adaptive Immunity to Francisella tularensis and Considerations for Vaccine Development · 2018
Not checked
72.
Chakravarty S. D., Zhu G., Tsai M. C., et al. Tumor necrosis factor blockade in chronic murine tuberculosis enhances granulomatous inflammation and disorganizes granulomas in the lungs. Infection and Immunity. 2008;76(3):916-926.
Not in our library10.1128/iai.01011-07
73.
Schmidt N. W., Khanolkar A., Hancox L., Heusel J. W., Harty J. T. Perforin plays an unexpected role in regulating T-cell contraction during prolonged Listeria monocytogenes infection. European Journal of Immunology. 2012;42(3):629-640.
Not in our library10.1002/eji.201141902
74.
de Alencar B. C. G., Persechini P. M., Haolla F. A., et al. Perforin and gamma interferon expression are required for CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell-dependent protective immunity against a human parasite, Trypanosoma cruzi, elicited by heterologous plasmid DNA prime-recombinant adenovirus 5 boost vaccination. Infection and Immunity. 2009;77(10):4383-4395.
Not in our library10.1128/iai.01459-08
75.
Sanapala S., Yu J. J., Murthy A. K., et al. Perforin- and granzyme-mediated cytotoxic effector functions are essential for protection against Francisella tularensis following vaccination by the defined F. tularensis subsp. novicida ΔfopC vaccine strain. Infection and Immunity. 2012;80(6):2177-2185.
Not in our library10.1128/iai.00036-12
76.
Tang H., Li C., Wang L., Zhang H., Fan Z. Granzyme H of cytotoxic lymphocytes is required for clearance of the hepatitis B virus through cleavage of the hepatitis B virus X protein. The Journal of Immunology. 2012;188(2):824-831.
Not in our library10.4049/jimmunol.1102205
77.
Simonian P. L., Roark C. L., Wehrmann F., et al. IL-17A-expressing T cells are essential for bacterial clearance in a murine model of hypersensitivity pneumonitis. The Journal of Immunology. 2009;182(10):6540-6549.
Not in our library10.4049/jimmunol.0900013
78.
Skyberg J. A., Thornburg T., Rollins M., Huarte E., Jutila M. A., Pascual D. W. Murine and bovine γδ T cells enhance innate immunity against Brucella abortus infections. PLoS One. 2011;6(7, article e21978).
Not in our library10.1371/journal.pone.0021978
79.
Rhodes K. A., Andrew E. M., Newton D. J., Tramonti D., Carding S. R. A subset of IL-10-producing gammadelta T cells protect the liver from Listeria-elicited, CD8+ T cell-mediated injury. European Journal of Immunology. 2008;38(8):2274-2283.
Not in our library10.1002/eji.200838354
80.
Li B., Bassiri H., Rossman M. D., et al. Involvement of the Fas/Fas ligand pathway in activation-induced cell death of mycobacteria-reactive human γδ T cells: a mechanism for the loss of γδ T cells in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis. The Journal of Immunology. 1998;161(3):1558-1567.
Not in our library
81.
Wallace M., Scharko A. M., Pauza C. D., et al. Functional γδ T-lymphocyte defect associated with human immunodeficiency virus infections. Molecular Medicine. 1997;3(1):60-71.
Not in our library10.1007/bf03401668
82.
Xu S., Han Y., Xu X., Bao Y., Zhang M., Cao X. IL-17A-producing γδT cells promote CTL responses against Listeria monocytogenes infection by enhancing dendritic cell cross-presentation. The Journal of Immunology. 2010;185(10):5879-5887.
Not in our library10.4049/jimmunol.1001763
83.
Schulz S. M., Kohler G., Holscher C., Iwakura Y., Alber G. IL-17A is produced by Th17, γδ T cells and other CD4− lymphocytes during infection with Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis and has a mild effect in bacterial clearance. International Immunology. 2008;20(9):1129-1138.
Not in our library10.1093/intimm/dxn069
84.
Wilson M. S., Feng C. G., Barber D. L., et al. Redundant and pathogenic roles for IL-22 in mycobacterial, protozoan, and helminth infections. The Journal of Immunology. 2010;184(8):4378-4390.
Not in our library10.4049/jimmunol.0903416
85.
Zulu M. Z., Naidoo K. K., Mncube Z., et al. Reduced expression of siglec-7, NKG2A, and CD57 on terminally differentiated CD56−CD16+ natural killer cell subset is associated with natural killer cell dysfunction in chronic HIV-1 clade C infection. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses. 2017;33(12):1205-1213.
Not in our library10.1089/aid.2017.0095
86.
Varchetta S., Mele D., Lombardi A., et al. Lack of Siglec-7 expression identifies a dysfunctional natural killer cell subset associated with liver inflammation and fibrosis in chronic HCV infection. Gut. 2016;65(12):1998-2006.
Not in our library10.1136/gutjnl-2015-310327
87.
Fang R., Ismail N., Walker D. H. Contribution of NK cells to the innate phase of host protection against an intracellular bacterium targeting systemic endothelium. The American Journal of Pathology. 2012;181(1):185-195.
Not in our library10.1016/j.ajpath.2012.03.020
88.
Goldszmid R. S., Caspar P., Rivollier A., et al. NK cell-derived interferon-γ orchestrates cellular dynamics and the differentiation of monocytes into dendritic cells at the site of infection. Immunity. 2012;36(6):1047-1059.
Not in our library10.1016/j.immuni.2012.03.026
89.
Müller A. A., Dolowschiak T., Sellin M. E., et al. An NK cell perforin response elicited via IL-18 controls mucosal inflammation kinetics during Salmonella gut infection. PLoS Pathogens. 2016;12(6, article e1005723).
Not in our library10.1371/journal.ppat.1005723
90.
Mureithi M. W., Cohen K., Moodley R., et al. Impairment of CD1d-restricted natural killer T cells in chronic HIV type 1 clade C infection. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses. 2011;27(5):501-509.
Not in our library10.1089/aid.2010.0237
91.
Paget C., Ivanov S., Fontaine J., et al. Interleukin-22 is produced by invariant natural killer T lymphocytes during influenza A virus infection: potential role in protection against lung epithelial damage. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2012;287(12):8816-8829.
Not in our library10.1074/jbc.m111.304758
92.
Jiang X., Zhang M., Lai Q., et al. Restored circulating invariant NKT cells are associated with viral control in patients with chronic hepatitis B. PLoS One. 2011;6(12, article e28871).
Not in our library10.1371/journal.pone.0028871
93.
Renneson J., Guabiraba R., Maillet I., et al. A detrimental role for invariant natural killer T cells in the pathogenesis of experimental dengue virus infection. The American Journal of Pathology. 2011;179(4):1872-1883.
Not in our library10.1016/j.ajpath.2011.06.023
94.
Joyee A. G., Qiu H., Wang S., Fan Y., Bilenki L., Yang X. Distinct NKT cell subsets are induced by different Chlamydia species leading to differential adaptive immunity and host resistance to the infections. The Journal of Immunology. 2007;178(2):1048-1058.
Not in our library10.4049/jimmunol.178.2.1048
95.
Chancellor A., White A., Tocheva A. S., et al. Quantitative and qualitative iNKT repertoire associations with disease susceptibility and outcome in macaque tuberculosis infection. Tuberculosis. 2017;105:86-95.
Not in our library10.1016/j.tube.2017.04.011
96.
Bourhis L. L., Péguillet I., Guihot A., et al. Antimicrobial activity of mucosal-associated invariant T cells. Nature Immunology. 2010;11(8):701-708.
Not in our library10.1038/ni.1890
97.
MAIT cells contribute to protection against lethal influenza infection in vivo · 2018
No notice
98.
Meierovics A., Yankelevich W.-J. C., Cowley S. C. MAIT cells are critical for optimal mucosal immune responses during in vivo pulmonary bacterial infection. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2013;110(33):E3119-E3128.
Not in our library10.1073/pnas.1302799110
99.
MAIT cells protect against pulmonary Legionella longbeachae infection · 2018
No notice
100.
D’Souza C., Pediongco T., Wang H., et al. Mucosal-associated invariant T cells augment immunopathology and gastritis in chronic Helicobacter pylori infection. The Journal of Immunology. 2018;200(5):1901-1916.
Not in our library10.4049/jimmunol.1701512
101.
Chen Z., Wang H., D'Souza C., et al. Mucosal-associated invariant T-cell activation and accumulation after in vivo infection depends on microbial riboflavin synthesis and co-stimulatory signals. Mucosal Immunology. 2017;10(1):58-68.
Not in our library10.1038/mi.2016.39
102.
Moore T., Ekworomadu C. O., Eko F. O., et al. Fc receptor–mediated antibody regulation of T cell immunity against intracellular pathogens. The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2003;188(4):617-624.
Not in our library10.1086/377134
103.
Woelbing F., Kostka S. L., Moelle K., et al. Uptake of Leishmania major by dendritic cells is mediated by Fcγ receptors and facilitates acquisition of protective immunity. Journal of Experimental Medicine. 2006;203(1):177-188.
Not in our library10.1084/jem.20052288
104.
Joller N., Weber S. S., Muller A. J., et al. Antibodies protect against intracellular bacteria by Fc receptor-mediated lysosomal targeting. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2010;107(47):20441-20446.
Not in our library10.1073/pnas.1013827107
105.
IgE mediates killing of intracellular Toxoplasma gondii by human macrophages through CD23-dependent, interleukin-10 sensitive pathway. · 2011
Not checked
106.
Lu L. L., Chung A. W., Rosebrock T. R., et al. A functional role for antibodies in tuberculosis. Cell. 2016;167(2):433-443.e14.
Not in our library10.1016/j.cell.2016.08.072
107.
Bitsaktsis C., Babadjanova Z., Gosselin E. J. In vivo mechanisms involved in enhanced protection utilizing an Fc receptor-targeted mucosal vaccine platform in a bacterial vaccine and challenge model. Infection and Immunity. 2015;83(1):77-89.
Not in our library10.1128/iai.02289-14
108.
Mollo S. B., Zajac A. J., Harrington L. E. Temporal requirements for B cells in the establishment of CD4 T cell memory. The Journal of Immunology. 2013;191(12):6052-6059.
Not in our library10.4049/jimmunol.1302033
109.
Schwartz-Cornil I., Benureau Y., Greenberg H., Hendrickson B. A., Cohen J. Heterologous protection induced by the inner capsid proteins of rotavirus requires transcytosis of mucosal immunoglobulins. Journal of Virology. 2002;76(16):8110-8117.
Not in our library10.1128/jvi.76.16.8110-8117.2002
110.
Wijburg O. L. C., Uren T. K., Simpfendorfer K., Johansen F. E., Brandtzaeg P., Strugnell R. A. Innate secretory antibodies protect against natural Salmonella typhimurium infection. Journal of Experimental Medicine. 2006;203(1):21-26.
Not in our library10.1084/jem.20052093
111.
Cunningham K. A., Carey A. J., Finnie J. M., et al. Poly-immunoglobulin receptor-mediated transport of IgA into the male genital tract is important for clearance of Chlamydia muridarum infection. American Journal of Reproductive Immunology. 2008;60(5):405-414.
Not in our library10.1111/j.1600-0897.2008.00637.x
112.
Sahi-Ozaki Y., Yoshikawa T., Iwakura Y., et al. Secretory IgA antibodies provide cross-protection against infection with different strains of influenza B virus. Journal of Medical Virology. 2004;74(2):328-335.
Not in our library10.1002/jmv.20173
113.
Tjärnlund A., Rodríguez A., Cardona P. J., et al. Polymeric IgR knockout mice are more susceptible to mycobacterial infections in the respiratory tract than wild-type mice. International Immunology. 2006;18(5):807-816.
Not in our library10.1093/intimm/dxl017
114.
Levin R., Grinstein S., Canton J. The life cycle of phagosomes: formation, maturation, and resolution. Immunological Reviews. 2016;273(1):156-179.
Not in our library10.1111/imr.12439
115.
Flannagan R. S., Jaumouille V., Grinstein S. The cell biology of phagocytosis. Annual Review of Pathology: Mechanisms of Disease. 2012;7(1):61-98.
Not in our library10.1146/annurev-pathol-011811-132445
116.
Antiviral Properties of Lactoferrin—A Natural Immunity Molecule · 2011
No notice
117.
Wessling-Resnick M. Nramp1 and other transporters involved in metal withholding during infection. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2015;290(31):18984-18990.
Not in our library10.1074/jbc.r115.643973
118.
Becskei A., Grusby M. J. Contribution of IL-12R mediated feedback loop to Th1 cell differentiation. FEBS Letters. 2007;581(27):5199-5206.
Not in our library10.1016/j.febslet.2007.10.007
119.
Snapper C. M., Paul W. E. Interferon-gamma and B cell stimulatory factor-1 reciprocally regulate Ig isotype production. Science. 1987;236(4804):944-947.
Not in our library10.1126/science.3107127
120.
Schroder K., Hertzog P. J., Ravasi T., Hume D. A. Interferon-γ: an overview of signals, mechanisms and functions. Journal of Leukocyte Biology. 2004;75(2):163-189.
Not in our library10.1189/jlb.0603252
121.
Ní Cheallaigh C., Keane J., Lavelle E. C., Hope J. C., Harris J. Autophagy in the immune response to tuberculosis: clinical perspectives. Clinical & Experimental Immunology. 2011;164(3):291-300.
Not in our library10.1111/j.1365-2249.2011.04381.x
122.
Ohshima J., Lee Y., Sasai M., et al. Role of mouse and human autophagy proteins in IFN-γ-induced cell-autonomous responses against Toxoplasma gondii. The Journal of Immunology. 2014;192(7):3328-3335.
Not in our library10.4049/jimmunol.1302822
123.
Al-Zeer M. A., Al-Younes H. M., Lauster D., Abu Lubad M., Meyer T. F. Autophagy restricts Chlamydia trachomatis growth in human macrophages via IFNG-inducible guanylate binding proteins. Autophagy. 2013;9(1):50-62.
Not in our library10.4161/auto.22482
124.
<italic toggle="yes">Salmonella</italic> Suppresses the TRIF-Dependent Type I Interferon Response in Macrophages · 2016
Not checked
125.
Kim B.-H., Shenoy A. R., Kumar P., Das R., Tiwari S., MacMicking J. D. A family of IFN-γ-inducible 65-kD GTPases protects against bacterial infection. Science. 2011;332(6030):717-721.
Not in our library10.1126/science.1201711
126.
Dawson R., Condos R., Tse D., et al. Immunomodulation with recombinant interferon-γ1b in pulmonary tuberculosis. PLoS One. 2009;4(9, article e6984).
Not in our library10.1371/journal.pone.0006984
127.
Einarsdottir T., Lockhart E., Flynn J. L. Cytotoxicity and secretion of gamma interferon are carried out by distinct CD8 T cells during Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Infection and Immunity. 2009;77(10):4621-4630.
Not in our library10.1128/iai.00415-09
128.
Lampe M. F., Wilson C. B., Bevan M. J., Starnbach M. N. Gamma interferon production by cytotoxic T lymphocytes is required for resolution of Chlamydia trachomatis infection. Infection and Immunity. 1998;66(11):5457-5461.
Not in our library10.1128/iai.66.11.5457-5461.1998
129.
Berg R. E., Crossley E., Murray S., Forman J. Relative contributions of NK and CD8 T cells to IFN-γ mediated innate immune protection against Listeria monocytogenes. The Journal of Immunology. 2005;175(3):1751-1757.
Not in our library10.4049/jimmunol.175.3.1751
130.
Meek S. M., Williams M. A. IFN-gamma-dependent and independent mechanisms of CD4+ memory T cell-mediated protection from Listeria infection. Pathogens. 2018;7(1):p. 22.
Not in our library10.3390/pathogens7010022
131.
A Gamma Interferon Independent Mechanism of CD4 T Cell Mediated Control of M. tuberculosis Infection in vivo · 2011
No notice
132.
Kagina B. M. N., Abel B., Scriba T. J., et al. Specific T cell frequency and cytokine expression profile do not correlate with protection against tuberculosis after bacillus Calmette-Guérin vaccination of newborns. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 2010;182(8):1073-1079.
Not in our library10.1164/rccm.201003-0334oc
133.
Innate Invariant NKT Cells Recognize Mycobacterium tuberculosis–Infected Macrophages, Produce Interferon-γ, and Kill Intracellular Bacteria · 2008
No notice
134.
Kaneko H., Yamada H., Mizuno S., et al. Role of tumor necrosis factor-α in Mycobacterium-induced granuloma formation in tumor necrosis factor-alpha-deficient mice. Laboratory Investigation. 1999;79(4):379-386.
Not in our library
135.
Butler N. S., Schmidt N. W., Harty J. T. Differential effector pathways regulate memory CD8 T cell immunity against Plasmodium berghei versus P. yoelii sporozoites. The Journal of Immunology. 2010;184(5):2528-2538.
Not in our library10.4049/jimmunol.0903529
136.
Belnoue E., Costa F. T. M., Frankenberg T., et al. Protective T cell immunity against malaria liver stage after vaccination with live sporozoites under chloroquine treatment. The Journal of Immunology. 2004;172(4):2487-2495.
Not in our library10.4049/jimmunol.172.4.2487
137.
Robinson M. W., O’Brien R., Mackintosh C. G., Clark R. G., Griffin J. F. T. Immunoregulatory cytokines are associated with protection from immunopathology following Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis infection in red deer. Infection and Immunity. 2011;79(5):2089-2097.
Not in our library10.1128/iai.00779-10
138.
Cheng W., Shivshankar P., Zhong Y., Chen D., Li Z., Zhong G. Intracellular interleukin-1α mediates interleukin-8 production induced by Chlamydia trachomatis infection via a mechanism independent of type I interleukin-1 receptor. Infection and Immunity. 2008;76(3):942-951.
Not in our library10.1128/iai.01313-07
139.
Kautz-Neu K., Kostka S. L., Dinges S., Iwakura Y., Udey M. C., von Stebut E. IL-1 signalling is dispensable for protective immunity in Leishmania-resistant mice. Experimental Dermatology. 2011;20(1):76-78.
Not in our library10.1111/j.1600-0625.2010.01172.x
140.
Dewamitta S. R., Nomura T., Kawamura I., et al. Listeriolysin O-dependent bacterial entry into the cytoplasm is required for calpain activation and interleukin-1α secretion in macrophages infected with Listeria monocytogenes. Infection and Immunity. 2010;78(5):1884-1894.
Not in our library10.1128/iai.01143-09
141.
Behbahani H., Walther-Jallow L., Klareskog E., et al. Proinflammatory and type 1 cytokine expression in cervical mucosa during HIV-1 and human papillomavirus infection. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes. 2007;45(1):9-19.
Not in our library10.1097/qai.0b013e3180415da7
142.
Al-Attiyah R., El-Shazly A., Mustafa A. S. Comparative analysis of spontaneous and mycobacterial antigen-induced secretion of Th1, Th2 and pro-inflammatory cytokines by peripheral blood mononuclear cells of tuberculosis patients. Scandinavian Journal of Immunology. 2012;75(6):623-632.
Not in our library10.1111/j.1365-3083.2012.02692.x
143.
Th cells promote CTL survival and memory via acquired pMHC-I and endogenous IL-2 and CD40L signaling and by modulating apoptosis-controlling pathways. · 2013
Not checked
144.
Benson A., Murray S., Divakar P., et al. Microbial infection-induced expansion of effector T cells overcomes the suppressive effects of regulatory T cells via an IL-2 deprivation mechanism. The Journal of Immunology. 2012;188(2):800-810.
Not in our library10.4049/jimmunol.1100769
145.
Maxwell J. R., Yadav R., Rossi R. J., et al. IL-18 bridges innate and adaptive immunity through IFN-γ and the CD134 pathway. The Journal of Immunology. 2006;177(1):234-245.
Not in our library10.4049/jimmunol.177.1.234
146.
Broz P., Monack D. M. Molecular mechanisms of inflammasome activation during microbial infections. Immunological Reviews. 2011;243(1):174-190.
Not in our library10.1111/j.1600-065x.2011.01041.x
147.
Martinon F., Burns K., Tschopp J. The inflammasome: a molecular platform triggering activation of inflammatory caspases and processing of proIL-β. Molecular Cell. 2002;10(2):417-426.
Not in our library10.1016/s1097-2765(02)00599-3
148.
Goncalves-de-Albuquerque S. C., Pessoa E. S. R., Trajano-Silva L. A. M., et al. The equivocal role of Th17 cells and neutrophils on immunopathogenesis of leishmaniasis. Frontiers in Immunology. 2017;8, article 1437.
Not in our library10.3389/fimmu.2017.01437
149.
Wu W., Li J., Chen F., Zhu H., Peng G., Chen Z. Circulating Th17 cells frequency is associated with the disease progression in HBV infected patients. Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology. 2010;25(4):750-757.
Not in our library10.1111/j.1440-1746.2009.06154.x
150.
Hartigan-O’Connor D. J., Hirao L. A., McCune J. M., Dandekar S. Th17 cells and regulatory T cells in elite control over HIV and SIV. Current Opinion in HIV and AIDS. 2011;6(3):221-227.
Not in our library10.1097/coh.0b013e32834577b3
151.
Ghoreschi K., Laurence A., Yang X. P., et al. Generation of pathogenic TH17 cells in the absence of TGF-β signalling. Nature. 2010;467(7318):967-971.
Not in our library10.1038/nature09447
152.
Lin Y., Ritchea S., Logar A., et al. Interleukin-17 is required for T helper 1 cell immunity and host resistance to the intracellular pathogen Francisella tularensis. Immunity. 2009;31(5):799-810.
Not in our library10.1016/j.immuni.2009.08.025
153.
Hamada S., Umemura M., Shiono T., et al. IL-17A produced by γδ T cells plays a critical role in innate immunity against listeria monocytogenes infection in the liver. The Journal of Immunology. 2008;181(5):3456-3463.
Not in our library10.4049/jimmunol.181.5.3456
154.
Foster R. G., Golden-Mason L., Rutebemberwa A., Rosen H. R. Interleukin (IL)-17/IL-22-producing T cells enriched within the liver of patients with chronic hepatitis C viral (HCV) infection. Digestive Diseases and Sciences. 2012;57(2):381-389.
Not in our library10.1007/s10620-011-1997-z
155.
Kuchroo V. K., Anderson A. C., Petrovas C. Coinhibitory receptors and CD8 T cell exhaustion in chronic infections. Current Opinion in HIV and AIDS. 2014;9(5):439-445.
Not in our library10.1097/coh.0000000000000088
156.
Mueller S. N., Ahmed R. High antigen levels are the cause of T cell exhaustion during chronic viral infection. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2009;106(21):8623-8628.
Not in our library10.1073/pnas.0809818106
157.
Wang X., Claflin J., Kang H., Suzuki Y. Importance of CD8+Vβ8+ T cells in IFN-γ-mediated prevention of toxoplasmic encephalitis in genetically resistant BALB/c mice. Journal of Interferon & Cytokine Research. 2005;25(6):338-344.
Not in our library10.1089/jir.2005.25.338
158.
Kirimanjeswara G. S., Olmos S., Bakshi C. S., Metzger D. W. Humoral and cell-mediated immunity to the intracellular pathogen Francisella tularensis. Immunological Reviews. 2008;225(1):244-255.
Not in our library10.1111/j.1600-065x.2008.00689.x
159.
Quaresma J. A. S., Esteves P. C., de Sousa Aarão T. L., de Sousa J. R., da Silva Pinto D., Fuzii H. T. Apoptotic activity and Treg cells in tissue lesions of patients with leprosy. Microbial Pathogenesis. 2014;76:84-88.
Not in our library10.1016/j.micpath.2014.07.005
160.
Boyer O., Saadoun D., Abriol J., et al. CD4+CD25+ regulatory T-cell deficiency in patients with hepatitis C-mixed cryoglobulinemia vasculitis. Blood. 2004;103(9):3428-3430.
Not in our library10.1182/blood-2003-07-2598
161.
Aandahl E. M., Michaelsson J., Moretto W. J., Hecht F. M., Nixon D. F. Human CD4+ CD25+ regulatory T cells control T-cell responses to human immunodeficiency virus and cytomegalovirus antigens. Journal of Virology. 2004;78(5):2454-2459.
Not in our library10.1128/jvi.78.5.2454-2459.2004
162.
Kabelitz D. γδ T-cells: cross-talk between innate and adaptive immunity. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences. 2011;68(14):2331-2333.
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Carding S. R., Allan W., Kyes S., Hayday A., Bottomly K., Doherty P. C. Late dominance of the inflammatory process in murine influenza by γ/δ+ T cells. Journal of Experimental Medicine. 1990;172(4):1225-1231.
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164.
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Vivier E., Tomasello E., Baratin M., Walzer T., Ugolini S. Functions of natural killer cells. Nature Immunology. 2008;9(5):503-510.
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Mavilio D., Lombardo G., Benjamin J., et al. Characterization of CD56−/CD16+ natural killer (NK) cells: a highly dysfunctional NK subset expanded in HIV-infected viremic individuals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2005;102(8):2886-2891.
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167.
Korbel D. S., Finney O. C., Riley E. M. Natural killer cells and innate immunity to protozoan pathogens. International Journal for Parasitology. 2004;34(13-14):1517-1528.
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168.
Lewinsohn D. A., Gold M. C., Lewinsohn D. M. Views of immunology: effector T cells. Immunological Reviews. 2011;240(1):25-39.
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169.
Mucosal-Associated Invariant T Cell Levels Are Reduced in the Peripheral Blood and Lungs of Children With Active Pulmonary Tuberculosis · 2019
Not checked
170.
Leeansyah E., Ganesh A., Quigley M. F., et al. Activation, exhaustion, and persistent decline of the antimicrobial MR1-restricted MAIT-cell population in chronic HIV-1 infection. Blood. 2013;121(7):1124-1135.
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171.
Yong Y. K., Saeidi A., Tan H. Y., et al. Hyper-expression of PD-1 is associated with the levels of exhausted and dysfunctional phenotypes of circulating CD161++TCR iVα7.2+ mucosal-associated invariant T cells in chronic hepatitis B virus infection. Frontiers in Immunology. 2018;9:p. 472.
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172.
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173.
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174.
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175.
Plotkin S. A. Vaccines: correlates of vaccine-induced immunity. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2008;47(3):401-409.
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176.
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177.
Edelson B. T., Unanue E. R. Intracellular antibody neutralizes Listeria growth. Immunity. 2001;14(5):503-512.
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178.
Jayasekera J. P., Moseman E. A., Carroll M. C. Natural antibody and complement mediate neutralization of influenza virus in the absence of prior immunity. Journal of Virology. 2007;81(7):3487-3494.
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179.
Nimmerjahn F., Ravetch J. V. FcγRs in health and disease. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. 2011;350:105-125.
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181.
Byndloss M. X., Tsolis R. M. Chronic bacterial pathogens: mechanisms of persistence. Microbiology Spectrum. 2016;4(2).
Not in our library10.1128/microbiolspec.vmbf-0020-2015
182.
Tascon R. E., Stavropoulos E., Lukacs K. V., Colston M. J. Protection against Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection by CD8+ T cells requires the production of gamma interferon. Infection and Immunity. 1998;66(2):830-834.
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183.
Vergne I., Chua J., Lee H. H., Lucas M., Belisle J., Deretic V. Mechanism of phagolysosome biogenesis block by viable Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2005;102(11):4033-4038.
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184.
Monack D. M. Salmonella persistence and transmission strategies. Current Opinion in Microbiology. 2012;15(1):100-107.
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185.
Pizza M., Rappuoli R. Neisseria meningitidis: pathogenesis and immunity. Current Opinion in Microbiology. 2015;23:68-72.
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186.
Fnr and ArcA Regulate Lipid A Hydroxylation in Salmonella Enteritidis by Controlling lpxO Expression in Response to Oxygen Availability · 2018
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187.
Ratet G., Santecchia I., Fanton d’Andon M., et al. LipL21 lipoprotein binding to peptidoglycan enables Leptospira interrogans to escape NOD1 and NOD2 recognition. PLoS Pathogens. 2017;13(12, article e1006725).
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188.
Otten C., Brilli M., Vollmer W., Viollier P. H., Salje J. Peptidoglycan in obligate intracellular bacteria. Molecular Microbiology. 2018;107(2):142-163.
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189.
New insights into the immunomodulatory properties of poxvirus cytokine decoy receptors at the cell surface [version 1; referees: 2 approved] · 2018
Not checked
190.
Montaner S., Kufareva I., Abagyan R., Gutkind J. S. Molecular mechanisms deployed by virally encoded G protein-coupled receptors in human diseases. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology. 2013;53(1):331-354.
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191.
Groschel M. I., Sayes F., Simeone R., Majlessi L., Brosch R. ESX secretion systems: mycobacterial evolution to counter host immunity. Nature Reviews Microbiology. 2016;14(11):677-691.
Not in our library10.1038/nrmicro.2016.131
192.
Kim S. I., Kim S., Kim E., Hwang S. Y., Yoon H. Secretion of Salmonella pathogenicity island 1-encoded type III secretion system effectors by outer membrane vesicles in Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2018;9:p. 2810.
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193.
Ke Y., Wang Y., Li W., Chen Z. Type IV secretion system of Brucella spp. and its effectors. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology. 2015;5:p. 72.
Not in our library10.3389/fcimb.2015.00072
194.
Anderson M., Chen Y. H., Butler E. K., Missiakas D. M. EsaD, a secretion factor for the Ess pathway in Staphylococcus aureus. Journal of Bacteriology. 2011;193(7):1583-1589.
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195.
Huppert L. A., Ramsdell T. L., Chase M. R., Sarracino D. A., Fortune S. M., Burton B. M. The ESX system in Bacillus subtilis mediates protein secretion. PLoS One. 2014;9(5, article e96267).
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196.
Petrova V. N., Russell C. A. The evolution of seasonal influenza viruses. Nature Reviews Microbiology. 2018;16(1):p. 60.
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197.
Obergfell K. P., Seifert H. S. Mobile DNA in the pathogenic Neisseria. Microbiology Spectrum. 2015;3(1, article MDNA3-0015-2014).
Not in our library10.1128/microbiolspec.mdna3-0015-2014
198.
Sadarangani M., Pollard A. J., Gray-Owen S. D. Opa proteins and CEACAMs: pathways of immune engagement for pathogenic Neisseria. FEMS Microbiology Reviews. 2011;35(3):498-514.
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199.
Deitsch K. W., Dzikowski R. Variant gene expression and antigenic variation by malaria parasites. Annual Review of Microbiology. 2017;71(1):625-641.
Not in our library10.1146/annurev-micro-090816-093841
200.
Branchu P., Bawn M., Kingsley R. A. Genome variation and molecular epidemiology of Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium pathovariants. Infection and Immunity. 2018;86(8).
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201.
Mugnier M. R., Cross G. A. M., Papavasiliou F. N. The in vivo dynamics of antigenic variation in Trypanosoma brucei. Science. 2015;347(6229):1470-1473.
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202.
Wang J. H., Pianko M. J., Ke X., et al. Characterization of antigenic variants of hepatitis C virus in immune evasion. Virology Journal. 2011;8(1):p. 377.
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203.
Smyth R. P., Negroni M. A step forward understanding HIV-1 diversity. Retrovirology. 2016;13:p. 27.
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204.
Saha A., Robertson E. S. Epstein-Barr virus–associated B-cell lymphomas: pathogenesis and clinical outcomes. Clinical Cancer Research. 2011;17(10):3056-3063.
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205.
van Lint A. L., Murawski M. R., Goodbody R. E., et al. Herpes simplex virus immediate-early ICP0 protein inhibits Toll-like receptor 2-dependent inflammatory responses and NF-κB signaling. Journal of Virology. 2010;84(20):10802-10811.
Not in our library10.1128/jvi.00063-10
206.
Bogdan C., Rollinghoff M. The immune response to Leishmania: mechanisms of parasite control and evasion. International Journal for Parasitology. 1998;28(1):121-134.
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207.
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Not in our library10.1038/322462a0
208.
Le Negrate G., Krieg A., Faustin B., et al. ChlaDub1 of Chlamydia trachomatis suppresses NF-κB activation and inhibits IκBα ubiquitination and degradation. Cellular Microbiology. 2008;10(9):1879-1892.
Not in our library10.1111/j.1462-5822.2008.01178.x
209.
el-Sagaff S., Salem H. S., Nichols W., Tonkel A. K., bo-Zenadah N. Y. Cell death pattern in cerebellum neurons infected with Toxoplasma gondii. Journal of the Egyptian Society of Parasitology. 2005;35(3):809-818.
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210.
Reichelt M., Zerboni L., Arvin A. M. Mechanisms of varicella-zoster virus neuropathogenesis in human dorsal root ganglia. Journal of Virology. 2008;82(8):3971-3983.
Not in our library10.1128/jvi.02592-07
211.
Baldwin C. L., Goenka R. Host immune responses to the intracellular bacteria Brucella: does the bacteria instruct the host to facilitate chronic infection? Critical Reviews in Immunology. 2006;26(5):407-442.
Not in our library10.1615/critrevimmunol.v26.i5.30
212.
Rajeeve K., Das S., Prusty B. K., Rudel T. Chlamydia trachomatis paralyses neutrophils to evade the host innate immune response. Nature Microbiology. 2018;3(7):824-835.
Not in our library10.1038/s41564-018-0182-y
213.
Zhong G. Killing me softly: chlamydial use of proteolysis for evading host defenses. Trends in Microbiology. 2009;17(10):467-474.
Not in our library10.1016/j.tim.2009.07.007
214.
Francisella requires dynamic type VI secretion system and ClpB to deliver effectors for phagosomal escape · 2017
Not checked
215.
Niu H., Xiong Q., Yamamoto A., Hayashi-Nishino M., Rikihisa Y. Autophagosomes induced by a bacterial Beclin 1 binding protein facilitate obligatory intracellular infection. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2012;109(51):20800-20807.
Not in our library10.1073/pnas.1218674109
216.
Luo Z. Q. Legionella secreted effectors and innate immune responses. Cellular Microbiology. 2012;14(1):19-27.
Not in our library10.1111/j.1462-5822.2011.01713.x
217.
Poussin M. A., Goldfine H. Evidence for the involvement of ActA in maturation of the Listeria monocytogenes phagosome. Cell Research. 2010;20(1):109-112.
Not in our library10.1038/cr.2009.142
218.
Sansonetti P. J. War and peace at mucosal surfaces. Nature Reviews Immunology. 2004;4(12):953-964.
Not in our library10.1038/nri1499
219.
Ye Z., Petrof E. O., Boone D., Claud E. C., Sun J. Salmonella effector AvrA regulation of colonic epithelial cell inflammation by deubiquitination. The American Journal of Pathology. 2007;171(3):882-892.
Not in our library10.2353/ajpath.2007.070220
220.
Cherayil B. J., McCormick B. A., Bosley J. Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium-dependent regulation of inducible nitric oxide synthase expression in macrophages by invasins SipB, SipC, and SipD and effector SopE2. Infection and Immunity. 2000;68(10):5567-5574.
Not in our library10.1128/iai.68.10.5567-5574.2000
221.
Molestina R. E., Sinai A. P. Detection of a novel parasite kinase activity at the Toxoplasma gondii parasitophorous vacuole membrane capable of phosphorylating host IκBα. Cellular Microbiology. 2005;7(3):351-362.
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222.
Popescu I., Macedo C., Abu-Elmagd K., et al. EBV-specific CD8+ T cell reactivation in transplant patients results in expansion of CD8+ type-1 regulatory T cells. American Journal of Transplantation. 2007;7(5):1215-1223.
Not in our library10.1111/j.1600-6143.2007.01740.x
223.
Vanderplasschen A., Mathew E., Hollinshead M., Sim R. B., Smith G. L. Extracellular enveloped vaccinia virus is resistant to complement because of incorporation of host complement control proteins into its envelope. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 1998;95(13):7544-7549.
Not in our library10.1073/pnas.95.13.7544
224.
Matsui M., Moriya O., Yoshimoto T., Akatsuka T. T-bet is required for protection against vaccinia virus infection. Journal of Virology. 2005;79(20):12798-12806.
Not in our library10.1128/jvi.79.20.12798-12806.2005
225.
Kohyama S., Ohno S., Isoda A., et al. IL-23 enhances host defense against vaccinia virus infection via a mechanism partly involving IL-17. The Journal of Immunology. 2007;179(6):3917-3925.
Not in our library10.4049/jimmunol.179.6.3917
226.
Bowen D. G., Walker C. M. Adaptive immune responses in acute and chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Nature. 2005;436(7053):946-952.
Not in our library10.1038/nature04079
227.
Alatrakchi N., Graham C. S., van der Vliet H. J. J., Sherman K. E., Exley M. A., Koziel M. J. Hepatitis C virus (HCV)-specific CD8+ cells produce transforming growth factor β that can suppress HCV-specific T-cell responses. Journal of Virology. 2007;81(11):5882-5892.
Not in our library10.1128/jvi.02202-06
228.
Yao Z. Q., Ray S., Eisen-Vandervelde A., Waggoner S., Hahn Y. S. Hepatitis C virus: immunosuppression by complement regulatory pathway. Viral Immunology. 2001;14(4):277-295.
Not in our library10.1089/08828240152716547
229.
de Souza Sales J., Lara F. A., Amadeu T. P., et al. The role of indoleamine 2, 3-dioxygenase in lepromatous leprosy immunosuppression. Clinical & Experimental Immunology. 2011;165(2):251-263.
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230.
Belkaid Y., Piccirillo C. A., Mendez S., Shevach E. M., Sacks D. L. CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells control Leishmania major persistence and immunity. Nature. 2002;420(6915):502-507.
Not in our library10.1038/nature01152
231.
Scott-Browne J. P., Shafiani S., Tucker-Heard G., et al. Expansion and function of Foxp3-expressing T regulatory cells during tuberculosis. Journal of Experimental Medicine. 2007;204(9):2159-2169.
Not in our library10.1084/jem.20062105
232.
Walther M., Tongren J. E., Andrews L., et al. Upregulation of TGF-β, FOXP3, and CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells correlates with more rapid parasite growth in human malaria infection. Immunity. 2005;23(3):287-296.
Not in our library10.1016/j.immuni.2005.08.006
233.
Mota L. J., Cornelis G. R. The bacterial injection kit: type III secretion systems. Annals of Medicine. 2005;37(4):234-249.
Not in our library10.1080/07853890510037329
234.
Christie P. J., Atmakuri K., Krishnamoorthy V., Jakubowski S., Cascales E. Biogenesis, architecture, and function of bacterial type IV secretion systems. Annual Review of Microbiology. 2005;59(1):451-485.
Not in our library10.1146/annurev.micro.58.030603.123630
235.
Badr G., Borhis G., Treton D., Moog C., Garraud O., Richard Y. HIV type 1 glycoprotein 120 inhibits human B cell chemotaxis to CXC chemokine ligand (CXCL) 12, CC chemokine ligand (CCL)20, and CCL21. The Journal of Immunology. 2005;175(1):302-310.
Not in our library10.4049/jimmunol.175.1.302
236.
Erridge C., Bennett-Guerrero E., Poxton I. R. Structure and function of lipopolysaccharides. Microbes and Infection. 2002;4(8):837-851.
Not in our library10.1016/s1286-4579(02)01604-0
237.
Zughaier S. M., Kandler J. L., Balthazar J. T., Shafer W. M. Phosphoethanolamine modification of Neisseria gonorrhoeae lipid a reduces autophagy flux in macrophages. PLoS One. 2015;10(12, article e0144347).
Not in our library10.1371/journal.pone.0144347
238.
Rosadini C. V., Zanoni I., Odendall C., et al. A single bacterial immune evasion strategy dismantles both MyD88 and TRIF signaling pathways downstream of TLR4. Cell Host & Microbe. 2015;18(6):682-693.
Not in our library10.1016/j.chom.2015.11.006
239.
Byndloss M. X., Rivera-Chavez F., Tsolis R. M., Baumler A. J. How bacterial pathogens use type III and type IV secretion systems to facilitate their transmission. Current Opinion in Microbiology. 2017;35:1-7.
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240.
Heidarieh H., Hernaez B., Alcami A. Immune modulation by virus-encoded secreted chemokine binding proteins. Virus Research. 2015;209:67-75.
Not in our library10.1016/j.virusres.2015.02.028
241.
Ojha H., Panwar H. S., Gorham R. D., Morikis D., Sahu A. Viral regulators of complement activation: structure, function and evolution. Molecular Immunology. 2014;61(2):89-99.
Not in our library10.1016/j.molimm.2014.06.004
242.
Zheng D., Chen H., Bartee M. Y., et al. Virus-derived anti-inflammatory proteins: potential therapeutics for cancer. Trends in Molecular Medicine. 2012;18(6):304-310.
Not in our library10.1016/j.molmed.2012.03.006
243.
Zhou P., Zeng W., Zhang X., Li S. The genetic evolution of canine parvovirus - a new perspective. PLoS One. 2017;12(3, article e0175035).
Not in our library10.1371/journal.pone.0175035
244.
Kurt-Jones E. A., Orzalli M. H., Knipe D. M., Osterrieder K. Innate immune mechanisms and herpes simplex virus infection and disease. Cell Biology of Herpes Viruses. Advances in Anatomy, Embryology and Cell Biology, Vol 223. 49-75.
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245.
Bogdan C. Mechanisms and consequences of persistence of intracellular pathogens: leishmaniasis as an example. Cellular Microbiology. 2008;10(6):1221-1234.
Not in our library10.1111/j.1462-5822.2008.01146.x
246.
Viboud G. I., Bliska J. B. Yersinia outer proteins: role in modulation of host cell signaling responses and pathogenesis. Annual Review of Microbiology. 2005;59(1):69-89.
Not in our library10.1146/annurev.micro.59.030804.121320
247.
Recruitment of the Major Vault Protein by InlK: A Listeria monocytogenes Strategy to Avoid Autophagy · 2011
Corrected
248.
Nguyen B. N., Peterson B. N., Portnoy D. A. Listeriolysin O: a phagosome-specific cytolysin revisited. Cellular Microbiology. 2019;21(3, article e12988).
Not in our library10.1111/cmi.12988
249.
Uchiya K., Barbieri M. A., Funato K., Shah A. H., Stahl P. D., Groisman E. A. A Salmonella virulence protein that inhibits cellular trafficking. The EMBO Journal. 1999;18(14):3924-3933.
Not in our library10.1093/emboj/18.14.3924
250.
Hu D., Wu J., Wang W., et al. Autophagy regulation revealed by SapM-induced block of autophagosome-lysosome fusion via binding RAB7. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 2015;461(2):401-407.
Not in our library10.1016/j.bbrc.2015.04.051
251.
Miller S. I., Mekalanos J. J. Constitutive expression of the phoP regulon attenuates Salmonella virulence and survival within macrophages. Journal of Bacteriology. 1990;172(5):2485-2490.
Not in our library10.1128/jb.172.5.2485-2490.1990
252.
Howe D., Mallavia L. P. Coxiella burnetii exhibits morphological change and delays phagolysosomal fusion after internalization by J774A.1 cells. Infection and Immunity. 2000;68(7):3815-3821.
Not in our library10.1128/iai.68.7.3815-3821.2000
253.
Alexander J., Satoskar A. R., Russell D. G. Leishmania species: models of intracellular parasitism. Journal of Cell Science. 1999;112:2993-3002.
Not in our library10.1242/jcs.112.18.2993
254.
Fortier A. H., Leiby D. A., Narayanan R. B., et al. Growth of Francisella tularensis LVS in macrophages: the acidic intracellular compartment provides essential iron required for growth. Infection and Immunity. 1995;63(4):1478-1483.
Not in our library10.1128/iai.63.4.1478-1483.1995
255.
Tranchemontagne Z. R., Camire R. B., O'Donnell V. J., Baugh J., Burkholder K. M. Staphylococcus aureus strain USA300 perturbs acquisition of lysosomal enzymes and requires phagosomal acidification for survival inside macrophages. Infection and Immunity. 2016;84(1):241-253.
Not in our library10.1128/iai.00704-15
256.
de Jong N. W. M., Ramyar K. X., Guerra F. E., et al. Immune evasion by a staphylococcal inhibitor of myeloperoxidase. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2017;114(35):9439-9444.
Not in our library10.1073/pnas.1707032114
257.
Rahman M. M., McFadden G. Modulation of NF-κB signalling by microbial pathogens. Nature Reviews Microbiology. 2011;9(4):291-306.
Not in our library10.1038/nrmicro2539
258.
Mukherjee S., Keitany G., Li Y., et al. Yersinia YopJ acetylates and inhibits kinase activation by blocking phosphorylation. Science. 2006;312(5777):1211-1214.
Not in our library10.1126/science.1126867
259.
le Negrate G., Faustin B., Welsh K., et al. Salmonella secreted factor L deubiquitinase of Salmonella typhimurium inhibits NF-κB, suppresses IκBα ubiquitination and modulates innate immune responses. The Journal of Immunology. 2008;180(7):5045-5056.
Not in our library10.4049/jimmunol.180.7.5045
260.
Wolf K., Plano G. V., Fields K. A. A protein secreted by the respiratory pathogen Chlamydia pneumoniae impairs IL-17 signalling via interaction with human Act1. Cellular Microbiology. 2009;11(5):769-779.
Not in our library10.1111/j.1462-5822.2009.01290.x
261.
Harte M. T., Haga I. R., Maloney G., et al. The poxvirus protein A52R targets Toll-like receptor signaling complexes to suppress host defense. Journal of Experimental Medicine. 2003;197(3):343-351.
Not in our library10.1084/jem.20021652
262.
Breiman A., Grandvaux N., Lin R., et al. Inhibition of RIG-I-dependent signaling to the interferon pathway during hepatitis C virus expression and restoration of signaling by IKKε. Journal of Virology. 2005;79(7):3969-3978.
Not in our library10.1128/jvi.79.7.3969-3978.2005
263.
Carty M., Bowie A. G. Recent insights into the role of Toll-like receptors in viral infection. Clinical & Experimental Immunology. 2010;161(3):397-406.
Not in our library10.1111/j.1365-2249.2010.04196.x
264.
Uchida L., Espada-Murao L. A., Takamatsu Y., et al. The dengue virus conceals double-stranded RNA in the intracellular membrane to escape from an interferon response. Scientific Reports. 2014;4(1, article 7395).
Not in our library10.1038/srep07395
265.
The Hepatitis C Virus-Induced Membranous Web and Associated Nuclear Transport Machinery Limit Access of Pattern Recognition Receptors to Viral Replication Sites. · 2016
Not checked
266.
Feng Q., Langereis M. A., Lork M., et al. Enterovirus 2Apro targets MDA5 and MAVS in infected cells. Journal of Virology. 2014;88(6):3369-3378.
Not in our library10.1128/jvi.02712-13
267.
Species-Specific Inhibition of RIG-I Ubiquitination and IFN Induction by the Influenza A Virus NS1 Protein · 2012
No notice
268.
Orzalli M. H., DeLuca N. A., Knipe D. M. Nuclear IFI16 induction of IRF-3 signaling during herpesviral infection and degradation of IFI16 by the viral ICP0 protein. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2012;109(44):E3008-E3017.
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269.
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270.
Chan Y. K., Gack M. U. Viral evasion of intracellular DNA and RNA sensing. Nature Reviews Microbiology. 2016;14(6):360-373.
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271.
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272.
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273.
Wu H., Jones R. M., Neish A. S. The Salmonella effector AvrA mediates bacterial intracellular survival during infection in vivo. Cellular Microbiology. 2012;14(1):28-39.
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274.
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275.
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276.
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277.
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278.
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279.
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280.
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281.
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283.
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284.
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285.
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286.
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287.
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288.
Caron E., Gross A., Liautard J. P., Dornand J. Brucella species release a specific, protease-sensitive, inhibitor of TNF-alpha expression, active on human macrophage-like cells. The Journal of Immunology. 1996;156(8):2885-2893.
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289.
Matsui K. A purified protein from Salmonella typhimurium inhibits proliferation of murine splenic anti-CD3 antibody-activated T-lymphocytes. FEMS Immunology & Medical Microbiology. 1996;14(2-3):121-127.
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290.
Mintz C. S., Miller R. D., Gutgsell N. S., Malek T. Legionella pneumophila protease inactivates interleukin-2 and cleaves CD4 on human T cells. Infection and Immunity. 1993;61(8):3416-3421.
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291.
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292.
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293.
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294.
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295.
Gondar V., Molina-Jiménez F., Hishiki T., et al. Apolipoprotein E, but not apolipoprotein B, is essential for efficient cell-to-cell transmission of hepatitis C virus. Journal of Virology. 2015;89(19):9962-9973.
Not in our library10.1128/jvi.00577-15
296.
Li Y., Pierce B. G., Wang Q., et al. Structural basis for penetration of the glycan shield of hepatitis C virus E2 glycoprotein by a broadly neutralizing human antibody. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2015;290(16):10117-10125.
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297.
Seitz H., Schmitt M., Bohmer G., Kopp-Schneider A., Muller M. Natural variants in the major neutralizing epitope of human papillomavirus minor capsid protein L2. International Journal of Cancer. 2013;132(3):E139-E148.
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298.
Boulton I. C., Gray-Owen S. D. Neisserial binding to CEACAM1 arrests the activation and proliferation of CD4+ T lymphocytes. Nature Immunology. 2002;3(3):229-236.
Not in our library10.1038/ni769
299.
Sewald X., Jiménez-Soto L., Haas R. PKC-dependent endocytosis of the Helicobacter pylori vacuolating cytotoxin in primary T lymphocytes. Cellular Microbiology. 2011;13(3):482-496.
Not in our library10.1111/j.1462-5822.2010.01551.x
300.
Srivastava S., Grace P. S., Ernst J. D. Antigen export reduces antigen presentation and limits T cell control of M. tuberculosis. Cell Host & Microbe. 2016;19(1):44-54.
Not in our library10.1016/j.chom.2015.12.003
301.
Velásquez L. N., Milillo M. A., Delpino M. V., et al. Brucella abortus down-regulates MHC class II by the IL-6-dependent inhibition of CIITA through the downmodulation of IFN regulatory factor-1 (IRF-1). Journal of Leukocyte Biology. 2017;101(3):759-773.
Not in our library10.1189/jlb.4a0416-196r
302.
Hyperinvasive Meningococci Induce Intra-nuclear Cleavage of the NF-κB Protein p65/RelA by Meningococcal IgA Protease. · 2015
Not checked
303.
Havel J. J., Chowell D., Chan T. A. The evolving landscape of biomarkers for checkpoint inhibitor immunotherapy. Nature Reviews Cancer. 2019;19(3):133-150.
Not in our library10.1038/s41568-019-0116-x
304.
Wang J., Roderiquez G., Norcross M. A. Control of adaptive immune responses by Staphylococcus aureus through IL-10, PD-L1, and TLR2. Scientific Reports. 2012;2(1):p. 606.
Not in our library10.1038/srep00606
305.
Hou N., Zou Y., Piao X., et al. T-cell immunoglobulin- and mucin-domain-containing molecule 3 signaling blockade improves cell-mediated immunity against malaria. Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2016;214(10):1547-1556.
Not in our library10.1093/infdis/jiw428
306.
TIM3 Mediates T Cell Exhaustion during Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection · 2016
No notice
307.
Wykes M. N., Lewin S. R. Immune checkpoint blockade in infectious diseases. Nature Reviews Immunology. 2018;18(2):91-104.
Not in our library10.1038/nri.2017.112
308.
Stephenson H. N., Herzig A., Zychlinsky A. Beyond the grave: when is cell death critical for immunity to infection? Current Opinion in Immunology. 2016;38:59-66.
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309.
Carpenter D., Hsiang C., Jiang X., et al. The herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) latency-associated transcript (LAT) protects cells against cold-shock-induced apoptosis by maintaining phosphorylation of protein kinase B (AKT). Journal of Neurovirology. 2015;21(5):568-575.
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310.
Mills S. D., Boland A., Sory M. P., et al. Yersinia enterocolitica induces apoptosis in macrophages by a process requiring functional type III secretion and translocation mechanisms and involving YopP, presumably acting as an effector protein. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 1997;94(23):12638-12643.
Not in our library10.1073/pnas.94.23.12638
311.
Knodler L. A., Finlay B. B., Steele-Mortimer O. The Salmonella effector protein SopB protects epithelial cells from apoptosis by sustained activation of Akt. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2005;280(10):9058-9064.
Not in our library10.1074/jbc.m412588200
312.
Byrne G. I., Ojcius D. M. Chlamydia and apoptosis: life and death decisions of an intracellular pathogen. Nature Reviews Microbiology. 2004;2(10):802-808.
Not in our library10.1038/nrmicro1007
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314.
Clifton D. R., Goss R. A., Sahni S. K., et al. NF-κB-dependent inhibition of apoptosis is essential for host cellsurvival during Rickettsia rickettsii infection. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 1998;95(8):4646-4651.
Not in our library10.1073/pnas.95.8.4646
315.
Bisle S., Klingenbeck L., Borges V., et al. The inhibition of the apoptosis pathway by the Coxiella burnetii effector protein CaeA requires the EK repetition motif, but is independent of survivin. Virulence. 2016;7(4):400-412.
Not in our library10.1080/21505594.2016.1139280
316.
Tundup S., Mohareer K., Hasnain S. E. Mycobacterium tuberculosis PE25/PPE41 protein complex induces necrosis in macrophages: role in virulence and disease reactivation? FEBS Open Bio. 2014;4(1):822-828.
Not in our library10.1016/j.fob.2014.09.001
317.
Orzalli M. H., Kagan J. C. Apoptosis and necroptosis as host defense strategies to prevent viral infection. Trends in Cell Biology. 2017;27(11):800-809.
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318.
Jorgensen I., Miao E. A. Pyroptotic cell death defends against intracellular pathogens. Immunological Reviews. 2015;265(1):130-142.
Not in our library10.1111/imr.12287

Cited by papers we hold 1

Role of Host and Pathogen-Derived MicroRNAs in Immune Regulation During Infectious and Inflammatory Diseases · 2020
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