Biomedical Implications of Heavy Metals Induced Imbalances in Redox Systems

Abstract

Several workers have extensively worked out the metal induced toxicity and have reported the toxic and carcinogenic effects of metals in human and animals. It is well known that these metals play a crucial role in facilitating normal biological functions of cells as well. One of the major mechanisms associated with heavy metal toxicity has been attributed to generation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, which develops imbalance between the prooxidant elements and the antioxidants (reducing elements) in the body. In this process, a shift to the former is termed as oxidative stress. The oxidative stress mediated toxicity of heavy metals involves damage primarily to liver (hepatotoxicity), central nervous system (neurotoxicity), DNA (genotoxicity), and kidney (nephrotoxicity) in animals and humans. Heavy metals are reported to impact signaling cascade and associated factors leading to apoptosis. The present review illustrates an account of the current knowledge about the effects of heavy metals (mainly arsenic, lead, mercury, and cadmium) induced oxidative stress as well as the possible remedies of metal(s) toxicity through natural/synthetic antioxidants, which may render their effects by reducing the concentration of toxic metal(s). This paper primarily concerns the clinicopathological and biomedical implications of heavy metals induced oxidative stress and their toxicity management in mammals.

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     Wang Y, Fang J, Leonard SS, Rao KMK. Cadmium inhibits the electron transfer chain and induces reactive oxygen species. Free Radical Biology and Medicine. 2004;36(11):1434-1443.

     Not in our library10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2004.03.010

112. 112.

     Bertin G, Averbeck D. Cadmium: cellular effects, modifications of biomolecules, modulation of DNA repair and genotoxic consequences (a review). Biochimie. 2006;88(11):1549-1559.

     Not in our library10.1016/j.biochi.2006.10.001

113. 113.

     López E, Arce C, Oset-Gasque MJ, Cañadas S, González MP. Cadmium induces reactive oxygen species generation and lipid peroxidation in cortical neurons in culture. Free Radical Biology and Medicine. 2006;40(6):940-951.

     Not in our library10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2005.10.062

114. 114.

     Lane TW, Morel FMM. A biological function for cadmium in marine diatoms. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2000;97(9):4627-4631.

     Not in our library10.1073/pnas.090091397

115. 115.

     Lane TW, Saito MA, George GN, Pickering IJ, Prince RC, Morell FMM. Biochemistry: a cadmium enzyme from a marine diatom. Nature. 2005;435(7038):p. 42.

     Not in our library10.1038/435042a

116. 116.

     Henson MC, Chedrese PJ. Endocrine disruption by cadmium, a common environmental toxicant with paradoxical effects on reproduction. Experimental Biology and Medicine. 2004;229(5):383-392.

     Not in our library10.1177/153537020422900506

117. 117.

     Retto de Queiroz EK, Waissmann W. Occupational exposure and effects on the male reproductive system. Cadernos de Saude Publica. 2006;22(3):485-493.

     Not in our library10.1590/s0102-311x2006000300003

118. 118.

     Waisberg M, Joseph P, Hale B, Beyersmann D. Molecular and cellular mechanisms of cadmium carcinogenesis. Toxicology. 2003;192(2-3):95-117.

     Not in our library10.1016/s0300-483x(03)00305-6

119. 119.

     Yang JM, Arnush M, Chen QY, Wu XD, Pang B, Jiang XZ. Cadmium-induced damage to primary cultures of rat Leydig cells. Reproductive Toxicology. 2003;17(5):553-560.

     Not in our library10.1016/s0890-6238(03)00100-x

120. 120.

     Sabolić I, Breljak D, Škarica M, Herak-Kramberger CM. Role of metallothionein in cadmium traffic and toxicity in kidneys and other mammalian organs. BioMetals. 2010;23(5):897-926.

     Not in our library10.1007/s10534-010-9351-z

121. 121.

     Kondoh M, Araragi S, Sato K, Higashimoto M, Takiguchi M, Sato M. Cadmium induces apoptosis partly via caspase-9 activation in HL-60 cells. Toxicology. 2002;170(1-2):111-117.

     Not in our library10.1016/s0300-483x(01)00536-4

122. 122.

     Sato M, Kondoh M. Recent studies on metallothionein: protection against toxicity of heavy metals and oxygen free radicals. Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine. 2002;196(1):9-22.

     Not in our library10.1620/tjem.196.9

123. 123.

     Oganjanovic BI, Pavlovic SZ, Maletic SD, et al. Protective influence of vitamin E on antioxidant defense system in the blood of rats treated with cadmium. Physiological Research. 2003;52:563-70.

     Not in our library

124. 124.

     Beytut E, Yuce A, Kamiloglu NN, Aksakal M. Role of dietary vitamin E in cadmium induced oxidative damage in rabbit’s blood, liver and kidneys. International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research. 2003;73(5):351-355.

     Not in our library10.1024/0300-9831.73.5.351

125. 125.

     Karbownik M, Gitto E, Lewinski A, Reiter RJ. Induction of lipid peroxidation in hamster organs by the carcinogen cadmium: amelioration by melatonin. Cell Biology and Toxicology. 2001;17(1):33-40.

     Not in our library10.1023/a:1010903130693

126. 126.

     Hultberg B, Andersson A, Isaksson A. Interaction of metals and thiols in cell damage and glutathione distribution: potentiation of mercury toxicity by dithiothreitol. Toxicology. 2001;156(2-3):93-100.

     Not in our library10.1016/s0300-483x(00)00331-0

127. 127.

     Fitzgerald WF, Clarkson TW. Mercury and monomethylmercury: present and future concerns. Environmental Health Perspectives. 1991;96:159-166.

     Not in our library10.1289/ehp.9196159

128. 128.

     Zalups RK. Molecular interactions with mercury in the kidney. Pharmacological Reviews. 2000;52(1):113-143.

     Not in our library

129. 129.

     Clarkson TW, Magos L. The toxicology of mercury and its chemical compounds. Critical Reviews in Toxicology. 2006;36(8):609-662.

     Not in our library10.1080/10408440600845619

130. 130.

     Langford NJ, Ferner RE. Toxicity of mercury. Journal of Human Hypertension. 1999;13(10):651-656.

     Not in our library10.1038/sj.jhh.1000896

131. 131.

     Liang YX, Sun RK, Sun Y, Chen ZQ, Li LH. Psychological effects of low-exposure to mercury vapor: application of a computer-administered neurobehavioral evaluation system. Environmental Research. 1993;60(2):320-327.

     Not in our library10.1006/enrs.1993.1040

132. 132.

     Nordberg M. General aspects of cadmium: transport, uptake and metabolism by the kidney. Environmental Health Perspectives. 1984;54:13-20.

     Not in our library10.1289/ehp.845413

133. 133.

     Yee S, Choi BH. Oxidative stress in neurotoxic effects of methylmercury poisoning. NeuroToxicology. 1996;17(1):17-26.

     Not in our library

134. 134.

     Clifton JC. Mercury exposure and public health. Pediatric Clinics of North America. 2007;54(2):237-269.

     Not in our library10.1016/j.pcl.2007.02.005

135. 135.

     Andersen O. Principles and recent developments in chelation treatment of metal intoxication. Chemical Reviews. 1999;99(9):2683-2710.

     Not in our library10.1021/cr980453a

136. 136.

     Yoshida M, Watanabe C, Kishimoto M, et al. Behavioral changes in metallothionein-null mice after the cessation of long-term, low-level exposure to mercury vapor. Toxicology Letters. 2006;161(3):210-218.

     Not in our library10.1016/j.toxlet.2005.09.007

137. 137.

     Rooney JPK. The role of thiols, dithiols, nutritional factors and interacting ligands in the toxicology of mercury. Toxicology. 2007;234(3):145-156.

     Not in our library10.1016/j.tox.2007.02.016

138. 138.

     Roels H, Bennart JP, Lauwerys R, Buchet JP, Malchaire J, Bernard A. Surveillance of workers exposed to mercury vapour: validation of a previously proposed biological threshold limit value for mercury concentration in urine. The American Journal of Industrial Medicine. 1985;7(1):45-71.

     Not in our library10.1002/ajim.4700070106

139. 139.

     Lund B, Miller DM, Woods JS. Studies on Hg(II)-induced H2O2 formation and oxidative stress in vivo and in vitro in rat kidney mitochondria. Biochemical Pharmacology. 1993;45(10):2017-2024.

     Not in our library10.1016/0006-2952(93)90012-l

140. 140.

     Goering PL, Fisher BR, Noren BT, Papaconstantinou A, Rojko JL, Marler RJ. Mercury induces regional and cell-specific stress protein expression in rat kidney. Toxicological Sciences. 2000;53(2):447-457.

     Not in our library10.1093/toxsci/53.2.447

141. 141.

     Salonen JT, Seppanen K, Nyyssonen K, et al. Intake of mercury from fish, lipid peroxidation, and the risk of myocardial infarction and coronary, cardiovascular, and any death in Eastern Finnish men. Circulation. 1995;91(3):645-655.

     Not in our library10.1161/01.cir.91.3.645

142. 142.

     Guallar E, Sanz-Gallardo MI, van'T Veer P, et al. Mercury, fish oils, and the risk of myocardial infarction. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2002;347(22):1747-1754.

     Not in our library10.1056/nejmoa020157

143. 143.

     Rissanen T, Voutilainen S, Nyyssonen K, Lakka TA, Salonen JT. Fish oil-derived fatty acids, docosahexaenoic acid and docosapentaenoic acid, and the risk of acute coronary events: the Kuopio ischaemic heart disease risk factor study. Circulation. 2000;102(22):2677-2679.

     Not in our library10.1161/01.cir.102.22.2677

144. 144.

     Dwayne JS, Paul BT. Mercury-induced externalization of phosphatidylserine and caspase 3 activation in human liver carcinoma (HepG2) cells. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2006;3(1):38-42.

     Not in our library10.3390/ijerph2006030005

145. 145.

     Klaassen CD, Gilman AG, Rall TW, Nies AS, Taylor P. Heavy metal and heavy metal antagonists. Goodman and Gilman’s The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. 1990;1592-1614.

     Not in our library

146. 146.

     Kety SS, Letonoff TV. Treatment of lead poisoning with sodium citrate. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. 1941;46(2):276-278.

     Not in our library

147. 147.

     Hoover TD, Aposhian HV. BAL increases the arsenic-74 content of rabbit brain. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology. 1983;70(1):160-162.

     Not in our library10.1016/0041-008x(83)90190-4

148. 148.

     Risher JF, Amler SN. Mercury exposure: evaluation and intervention. The inappropriate use of chelating agents in the diagnosis and treatment of putative mercury poisoning. NeuroToxicology. 2005;26(4):691-699.

     Not in our library10.1016/j.neuro.2005.05.004

149. 149.

     Chisolm JJ, Thomas DJ. Use of 2,3-dimercaptopropane-1-sulfonate in treatment of lead poisoning in children. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 1985;235(3):665-669.

     Not in our library

150. 150.

     Zalups RK, Parks LD, Cannon VT, Barfuss DW. Mechanisms of action of 2,3-dimercaptopropane-1-sulfonate and the transport, disposition, and toxicity of inorganic mercury in isolated perfused segments of rabbit proximal tubules. Molecular Pharmacology. 1998;54(2):353-363.

     Not in our library10.1124/mol.54.2.353

151. 151.

     Cherian MG, Miles EF, Clarkson TW, Cox C. Estimation of mercury burdens in rats by chelation with dimercaptopropane sulfonate. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 1988;245(2):479-484.

     Not in our library

152. 152.

     Gonzalez-Ramirez D, Zuniga-Charles M, Narro-Juarez A, et al. DMPS (2,3-dimercaptopropane-1-sulfonate, dimaval) decreases the body burden of mercury in humans exposed to mercurous chloride. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 1998;287(1):8-12.

     Not in our library

153. 153.

     Aposhian HV, Aposhian MM. Meso-2, 3-dimercaptosuccinic acid: chemical, pharmacological and toxicological properties of an orally effective metal chelating agent. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology. 1990;30(1):279-306.

     Not in our library10.1146/annurev.pa.30.040190.001431

154. 154.

     Smith DR, Flegal AR. Stable isotopic tracers of lead mobilized by DMSA chelation in low lead- exposed rats. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology. 1992;116(1):85-91.

     Not in our library10.1016/0041-008x(92)90148-l

155. 155.

     Flora SJS, Pant BP, Tripathi N, Kannan GM, Jaiswal DK. Distribution of arsenic by diesters of Mesi 2,3 dimercaptosuccinic acid during sub-chronic intoxication in rats. Journal of Occupational Health. 1997;39:119-123.

     Not in our library

156. 156.

     Mayo JC, Tan DX, Sainz RM, Natarajan M, Lopez-Burillo S, Reiter RJ. Protection against oxidative protein damage induced by metal-catalyzed reaction or alkylperoxyl radicals: comparative effects of melatonin and other antioxidants. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. 2003;1620(1–3):139-150.

     Not in our library10.1016/s0304-4165(02)00527-5

157. 157.

     Cory-Slechta DA, Weiss B, Cox C. Mobilization and redistribution of lead over the course of calcium disodium ethylenediamine tetraacetate chelation therapy. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 1987;243(3):804-813.

     Not in our library

158. 158.

     Flora SJS, Bhattacharya R, Vijayaraghavan R. Combined therapeutic potential of meso-2,3-dimercaptosuccinic acid and calcium disodium edetate on the mobilization and distribution of lead in experimental lead intoxication in rats. Toxicological Sciences. 1995;25(2):233-240.

     Not in our library10.1006/faat.1995.1059

159. 159.

     Young IS, Woodside JV. Antioxidants in health and disease. Journal of Clinical Pathology. 2001;54(3):176-186.

     Not in our library10.1136/jcp.54.3.176

160. 160.

     Tandon SK, Singh S, Dhawan M. Preventive effect of vitamin E in cadmium intoxication. Biomedical and Environmental Sciences. 1992;5(1):39-45.

     Not in our library

161. 161.

     Rendón-Ramirez A, Cerbón-Solórzano J, Maldonado-Vega M, Quintanar-Escorza MA, Calderón-Salinas JV. Vitamin-E reduces the oxidative damage on δ-aminolevulinic dehydratase induced by lead intoxication in rat erythrocytes. Toxicology in Vitro. 2007;21(6):1121-1126.

     Not in our library10.1016/j.tiv.2007.04.019

162. 162.

     El-Demerdash FM, Yousef MI, Kedwany FS, Baghdadi HH. Cadmium-induced changes in lipid peroxidation, blood hematology, biochemical parameters and semen quality of male rats: protective role of vitamin E and β-carotene. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2004;42(10):1563-1571.

     Not in our library10.1016/j.fct.2004.05.001

163. 163.

     Quig D. Cysteine metabolism and metal toxicity. Alternative Medicine Review. 1998;3(4):262-270.

     Not in our library

164. 164.

     Tirouvanziam R, Conrad CK, Bottiglieri T, Herzenberg LA, Moss RB. High-dose oral N-acetylcysteine, a glutathione prodrug, modulates inflammation in cystic fibrosis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2006;103(12):4628-4633.

     Not in our library10.1073/pnas.0511304103

165. 165.

     Shaikh ZA, Zaman K, Tang W, Vu T. Treatment of chronic cadmium nephrotoxicity by N-acetyl cysteine. Toxicology Letters. 1999;104(1-2):137-142.

     Not in our library10.1016/s0378-4274(98)00358-0

166. 166.

     Bustamante J, Lodge JK, Marcocci L, Tritschler HJ, Packer L, Rihn BH. α-lipoic acid in liver metabolism and disease. Free Radical Biology and Medicine. 1998;24(6):1023-1039.

     Not in our library10.1016/s0891-5849(97)00371-7

167. 167.

     Sumathi R, Baskaran G, Varalakshmi P. Effect of DL α-lipoic acid on tissue redox state in acute cadmium-challenged tissues. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry. 1996;7(2):85-92.

     Not in our library

168. 168.

     Muller L. Protective effects of DL-α-lipoic acid on cadmium-induced deterioration of rat hepatocytes. Toxicology. 1989;58(2):175-185.

     Not in our library10.1016/0300-483x(89)90007-3

169. 169.

     García JJ, Reiter RJ, Guerrero JM, et al. Melatonin prevents changes in microsomal membrane fluidity during induced lipid peroxidation. The FEBS Letters. 1997;408(3):297-300.

     Not in our library10.1016/s0014-5793(97)00447-x

170. 170.

     Othman AI, Al Sharawy S, El-Missiry MA. Role of melatonin in ameliorating lead induced haematotoxicity. Pharmacological Research. 2004;50(3):301-307.

     Not in our library10.1016/j.phrs.2004.01.013

171. 171.

     El-Sokkary GH, Abdel-Rahman GH, Kamel ES. Melatonin protects against lead-induced hepatic and renal toxicity in male rats. Toxicology. 2005;213(1-2):25-33.

     Not in our library10.1016/j.tox.2005.05.003

172. 172.

     Limson J, Nyokong T, Daya S. The interaction of melatonin and its precursors with aluminium, cadmium, copper, iron, lead, and zinc: an adsorptive voltammetric study. Journal of Pineal Research. 1998;24(1):15-21.

     Not in our library10.1111/j.1600-079x.1998.tb00361.x

173. 173.

     Kotler M, Rodriguez C, Sainz RM, Antolin I, Pelaez AM. Melatonin increases gene expression for antioxidant enzymes in rat brain cortex. Journal of Pineal Research. 1998;24(2):83-89.

     Not in our library10.1111/j.1600-079x.1998.tb00371.x

174. 174.

     Melchiorri D, Reiter RJ, Attia AM, Hara M, Burgos A, Nistico G. Potent protective effect of melatonin on in vivo paraquat-induced oxidative damage in rats. Life Sciences. 1995;56(2):83-89.

     Not in our library10.1016/0024-3205(94)00417-q

175. 175.

     Reiter RJ, Tan D-X, Cabrera J, et al. The oxidant/antioxidant network: role of melatonin. Biological Signals and Receptors. 1999;8(1-2):56-63.

     Not in our library10.1159/000014569

176. 176.
     Melatonin, immune function and aging · 2005

     No notice
177. 177.

     Reiter RJ, Tan D, Burkhardt S. Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species and cellular and organismal decline: amelioration with melatonin. Mechanisms of Ageing and Development. 2002;123(8):1007-1019.

     Not in our library10.1016/s0047-6374(01)00384-0

178. 178.

     Pieri C, Marra M, Moroni F, Recchioni R, Marcheselli F. Melatonin: a peroxyl radical scavenger more effective than vitamin E. Life Sciences. 1994;55(15):PL271-PL276.

     Not in our library10.1016/0024-3205(94)00666-0

179. 179.

     Reiter RJ. Melatonin: clinical relevance. Best Practice and Research Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 2003;2:273-285.

     Not in our library10.1016/s1521-690x(03)00016-2

180. 180.

     Flora SJS. Influence of simultaneous supplementation of zinc and copper during chelation of lead in rats. Human and Experimental Toxicology. 1991;10(5):331-336.

     Not in our library10.1177/096032719101000506

181. 181.

     Flora GJS, Seth PK, Flora SJS. Recoveries in lead induced alterations in rat brain biogenic amines levels following combined chelation therapy with meso 2,3-dimercaptosuccinic acid and calcium disodium versenate. Biogenic Amines. 1997;13(2):79-90.

     Not in our library

182. 182.

     Bhadauria S, Flora SJS. Response of arsenic-induced oxidative stress, DNA damage, and metal imbalance to combined administration of DMSA and monoisoamyl-DMSA during chronic arsenic poisoning in rats. Cell Biology and Toxicology. 2007;23(2):91-104.

     Not in our library10.1007/s10565-006-0135-8

183. 183.

     Flora SJS, Pant SC, Sachan AS. Mobilization and distribution of lead over the course of combined treatment with thiamine and meso 2,3-dimercaptosuccinic acid or 2,3-dimercaptopropane sulphonate in rats. Clinical Chemistry and Enzymology Communications. 1994;6(4):207-216.

     Not in our library

184. 184.

     Mishra D, Flora SJS. Quercetin administration during chelation therapy protects arsenic-induced oxidative stress in mice. Biological Trace Element Research. 2008;122(2):137-147.

     Not in our library10.1007/s12011-007-8064-9

185. 185.

     Lauwerys R, Roels H, Buchet JP, Bernard AA, Verhoeven L, Konings J. The influence of orally-administered vitamin C or zinc on the absorption of and the biological response to lead. Journal of Occupational Medicine. 1983;25(9):668-678.

     Not in our library10.1097/00043764-198309000-00015

186. 186.

     Flora SJS, Mehta A, Gupta R. Prevention of arsenic-induced hepatic apoptosis by concomitant administration of garlic extracts in mice. Chemico-Biological Interactions. 2009;177(3):227-233.

     Not in our library10.1016/j.cbi.2008.08.017

187. 187.
     Chelation in Metal Intoxication · 2010

     No notice

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