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Functional Roles of p38 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase in Macrophage-Mediated Inflammatory Responses

Yanyan Yang, Seung Cheol Kim, Tao Yu and 5 more

Mediators of Inflammation · 2014 · Review

doi:10.1155/2014/352371

Abstract

Inflammation is a natural host defensive process that is largely regulated by macrophages during the innate immune response. Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) are proline-directed serine and threonine protein kinases that regulate many physiological and pathophysiological cell responses. p38 MAPKs are key MAPKs involved in the production of inflammatory mediators, including tumor necrosis factor- α (TNF- α ) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). p38 MAPK signaling plays an essential role in regulating cellular processes, especially inflammation. In this paper, we summarize the characteristics of p38 signaling in macrophage-mediated inflammation. In addition, we discuss the potential of using inhibitors targeting p38 expression in macrophages to treat inflammatory diseases.

Full text

From PubMed Central, U.S. National Library of Medicine, as current on Oct 17, 2026. Paragraph numbers are ours, so an answer can point at one.

1. Introduction

Inflammatory response is a basic protective immune process of the organism and is accompanied by symptoms such as redness, heat, swelling, and pain associated with damage to tissues or organs. This is one of the mechanisms by which our body defends us from pathogens such as parasites, bacteria, viruses, and other harmful microorganisms. Diseases induced by chronic inflammation, including gastritis, colitis, dermatitis, rheumatoid arthritis, pulmonary diseases, and type II diabetes, damage millions of people's health every year. Of concern is the increase in prevalence of these chronic inflammatory diseases. Furthermore, there is growing evidence that inflammation is a critical initiation factor inducing a variety of other major diseases such as cancer, atherosclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, cardiovascular disease, neurological disorders, and pulmonary diseases. Therefore, a better understanding of inflammation is clinically significant and could improve treatment strategies.

Macrophages within tissues play an essential role in the initiation, development, and resolution of inflammation. Macrophages are white blood cells that are differentiated from monocytes. Their roles are to clean up damaged cells and pathogens by phagocytosis and to activate immune cells, such as neutrophils, dendritic cells, macrophages, and monocytes, in response to pathogens and diseases. They can be activated or deactivated during inflammatory processes depending on the signaling molecules produced. Stimulation signals include lipopolysaccharide (LPS), cytokines (interleukin-1 (IL-1) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)), other chemical mediators, and extracellular matrix proteins. A variety of membrane receptors are expressed on the surfaces of macrophages, including pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) such as dectin-1 and Toll-like receptors (TLRs). These receptors recognize activation signals and subsequently activate downstream protein kinases, eventually resulting in the stimulation of transcription factors including activator protein-1 (AP-1), nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), and cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB).

Various intracellular proteins can initiate inflammation. p38 proteins are a class of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) that are major players during inflammatory responses, especially in macrophages. p38, also called RK or cytokinin-specific binding protein (CSBP), was identified in 1994 and is the mammalian ortholog of the yeast Hog1p MAP kinase. p38 was isolated as a 38 kDa protein that is rapidly phosphorylated at a tyrosine residue in response to LPS stimulation, and the p38 gene was cloned through binding of the p38 protein with pyridinyl imidazole derivatives. p38 expression is upregulated in response to inflammatory and stress stimuli, such as cytokines, ultraviolet irradiation, osmotic shock, and heat shock, and is involved in autophagy, apoptosis, and cell differentiation. Accumulating evidence suggests that p38 plays an important role in arthritis and inflammation of the liver, kidney, brain, and lung and that it acts as a critical player in inflammatory diseases mediated by macrophages.

In this paper, we summarize the characteristics of p38 and highlight the physiological significance of p38 activation in macrophage-mediated inflammatory responses. Moreover, we discuss the possibility of using plant extracts, natural products, and chemicals that target p38 as therapeutic drug candidates for the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

2.1. The p38 Family

p38 family members are classified into four subtypes: α (MAPK14), β (MAPK11), γ (MAPK12/ERK6), and δ (MAPK13/SAPK4) (Table 1). Genes encoding p38α and p38β show 74% sequence homology, whereas γ and δ are more distant relatives, with approximately 62% sequence identity. Genes encoding p38α and p38β are ubiquitously expressed within tissues, and especially highly expressed in heart and brain. However, p38γ and p38δ show tissue-specific expression patterns; p38γ is highly expressed in skeletal muscle, whereas p38δ expression is concentrated in the kidneys, lungs, pancreas, testis, and small intestine. In addition, p38γ expression can be induced during muscle differentiation, and its expression can also be developmentally regulated. Moreover, we demonstrated very high expression of the active form of p38 in inflammatory diseases, such as gastritis, colitis, arthritis, and hepatitis (unpublished data). p38α and p38δ are abundantly expressed in macrophages, whereas p38β is undetectable. p38α and p38δ are also expressed in endothelial cells, neutrophils, and CD4+ T cells, whereas p38β is abundant in endothelial cells. These findings indicate that, even though the four p38 family members share sequence homology, their expression is cell- and tissue dependent and their functions may therefore be different.

2.2. p38 Structure and Domains

p38 kinases have two domains: a 135 amino acid N-terminal domain and a 225 amino acid C-terminal domain. The main secondary structure of the N-terminal domain is β-sheets, while the C-terminal domain has a α-helical structure. The catalytic site is located in the region linking the two domains. The phosphorylation lip of p38 consists of 13 residues, Leu-171–Val-183, and the protein is activated by phosphorylation of a single threonine (Thr-180) and a single tyrosine residue (Tyr-182) in the lip. Moreover, in Drosophila p38 MAPK, phosphorylation of tyrosine-186 was detected exclusively in the nucleus following osmotic stress. p38 isoforms show various three-dimensional structures with differences in the orientation of the N- and C-terminal domains, resulting in different sized ATP-binding pockets.

2.3. Activation of the p38 Response

p38 kinases are activated by environmental and cellular stresses including pathogens, heat shock, growth factors, osmotic shock, ultraviolet irradiation, and cytokines. Moreover, various signaling events are able to stimulate p38 kinases, for example, insulin signaling. Interestingly, with respect to inflammatory responses, a number of studies have reported p38 regulation in macrophages treated with LPS, endothelial cells stimulated with TNF-α, U1 monocytic cells treated with IL-18, and human neutrophils activated with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA), LPS, TNF-α, and fMLP. It should also be noted that p38 activation in different cell types is dependent on the type of stimulus.

In addition, a number of studies have reported that distinct upstream kinases selectively activate p38 isoforms. p38 family kinases are all activated by MAP kinase kinases (MKKs). MKK6 activates all four p38 isoforms, while MKK3 can activate p38α, β, and δ, but not p38γ, and MKK4 activates p38α and δ. This implies that p38 isoforms can be coactivated by the same upstream regulators and regulated specifically through different regulators.

2.4. p38 Deficiency

p38α deficiency affects placental development and erythropoietin expression and can result in embryonic lethality. Tetraploid rescue of placental defects in p38α −/− embryos indicated that p38α was required for extraembryonic development, while it was not necessary for embryo development or adult mice survival. In accordance with the phenotype of p38α knockouts, knockout of two p38 activators, namely, MKK3 and MKK6, led to placental and vascular defects and induced embryonic lethality. In contrast, p38β −/− mice were viable and exhibited no obvious health defects. Neither transcription of p38-dependent immediate-early genes, such as TNF-α and IL-1β, nor T cell development was influenced by the loss of p38β. Furthermore, mice harboring a T106M mutation in p38α resisted the drug inhibitory effect of collagen antibody-induced arthritis and LPS-induced TNF production, whereas the same mutation in p38β had the opposite effect, and p38β knockout mice responded normally to inflammatory stimuli. Single knockouts of either p38γ or p38δ, and even a double knockout, were viable. However, reduced production of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-10 in stimulated macrophages isolated from p38 γ/δ null mice has been observed, which indicates that p38 γ/δ are important regulatory components of the innate immune response. Taken together, these findings suggest that p38α is the critical isoform in inflammatory responses but that other subtypes also play important roles.

2.5. Regulation of p38-Activated Signaling

Because p38 signaling can be activated by a variety of stimuli, the receptors and downstream pathways are diverse (Figure 1). MTK1, mixed lineage kinase (MLK) 2/3, apoptosis signal-regulating kinase (ASK) 1, and transforming growth factor β-activated kinase (TAK) 1 are all MKK kinases (MAP3Ks) that have been demonstrated to activate p38 signaling. Furthermore, different kinases can mediate different signals. Among upstream proteins, Cdc42 and Rac are recognized as critical intermediates of p38 activity. Many studies have also reported that p21-activated kinases (PAKs) can be stimulated by binding to Cdc42 and Rac in vitro and subsequently activate a p38 response. In addition, Mst1, a mammalian homologue of Ste20, was reported to stimulate MKK6, p38, MKK7, and JNK. However, there are no reports of the involvement of MTK1 and Mst1 in p38 responses in macrophages.

There are numbers of substrates downstream of p38 signaling pathways. MAP kinase-activated protein kinase 2 (M2) and M3 were the first p38 substrates identified. Phosphorylated M2 or M3 can activate a variety of substrates, such as small heat shock protein 27 (HSP27), CREB, and activating transcription factor (ATF) 1. To date, several other proteins have also been identified as downstream substrates of p38, such as mitogen- and stress-activated kinase (MSK), p38-regulated/activated kinase (PRAK), and MAP kinase interaction protein kinase (MNK1). Various novel proteins have also been shown to be direct substrates of p38α, including Ahnak, Iws1, Grp78, Pgrmc, Prdx6, and Ranbp2. Additionally, TPL2/ERK1/2 has been shown to be downstream kinases controlled by p38 γ and δ isoforms.

Phosphatases that downregulate p38 activity have also been identified. Mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatases (MKPs) can recognize MAPKs by recognizing the TXY amino acid motif and consequently dephosphorylate and deactivate them. MKP-1, MKP-4, MKP-5, and MKP7 can effectively dephosphorylate p38α and p38β. However, right now, MKPs cannot dephosphorylate p38γ or p38δ as shown by other researchers.

Several transcription factors in the nucleus can be phosphorylated and activated by p38 MAPKs, such as activating transcription factor 1 and 2 (ATF-1, ATF-2), myocyte enhancer factor 2 (MEF2), CCAAT/enhancer-binding proteins (C/EBPs), SRF accessory protein-1 (Sap1), p53, and E26 transformation-specific sequence-1 (ETS-1) (Figure 1).

3. p38 Functions in Macrophage-Mediated Inflammatory Responses and Diseases

Macrophages are the first line of defense of organisms against pathogens. They represent a major cell population distributed in most tissues, and their numbers increase massively in inflammatory diseases. In particular, macrophages are critically involved in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and produce a variety of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines that contribute to cartilage and bone degradation. They are also the predominant cells in the synovial lining and sublining of patients with RA. Macrophages also play a central role in the development of type 2 diabetic nephropathy. Macrophage accumulation in kidney, coronary arteries, nerves, and epiretinal membrane is regarded as one of major causing factors in terms of type 2 diabetic complications, including nephropathy, atherosclerosis, neuropathy, and retinopathy. Components of the diabetic milieu, including high glucose, advanced glycation end products, and oxidized low-density lipoprotein, promote macrophage accumulation and activation within diabetic tissues. Macrophage depletion studies have also demonstrated the crucial role of macrophages in the development of diabetic complications. Moreover, macrophages play a pivotal role in the clearance of pulmonary pathogens. Alveolar macrophages (AM) constitute more than 90% of the cells present in bronchoalveolar lavage of naïve tissues. AM can rapidly clear bacteria from airways and cellular debris, help to depress the immune characteristics of the airways, and aid in lung parenchyma modeling. Furthermore, macrophages have significant roles in metabolic diseases, atherosclerosis, bowel disease, and liver fibrosis. The fundamental roles of macrophages in inflammation highlight the need for macrophage-targeted studies and therapeutics.

Accumulating evidence suggests that p38 plays an essential role in macrophage-mediated inflammation. p38α is involved in the expression of proinflammatory mediators in macrophages such as IL-1β, TNF-α, PGE2, and IL-12 as well as COX-2, IL-8, IL-6, IL-3, IL-2, and IL-1, all of which contain AU-rich elements (AREs) in their 3′ untranslated regions to which p38 binds. Moreover, p38 can regulate the production of endothelial vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), which participates in cell proliferation and differentiation of the immune response. Furthermore, p38 is associated with various inflammatory diseases, including endotoxin-induced shock, collagen-induced arthritis, granuloma, diabetes, and acute lung inflammation, as well as joint diseases, including synovial inflammation, cartilage damage, and bone loss. In contrast, p38β and δ also play important roles in regulation of TPA-induced skin inflammation and tumor development. In addition, a large number of reports have suggested a close correlation between p38 and cell apoptosis, cell cycle progression, and differentiation.

4. Development of p38-Targeted Drugs as New Anti-Inflammatory Therapeutics

p38 MAPK signaling plays a significant role in the inflammatory response and other physiological processes. A better understanding of the functional and biological significance of p38 in inflammation has led to the development of p38 inhibitors. Currently, a number of p38 inhibitors have been developed such as AMG-548, SC-80036, SC-79659, and VXs (Figure 2); however, few studies have reported their effects on macrophages.

4.1. Discovery

p38 signaling and specific p38 inhibitors were identified simultaneously. A series of pyridinyl imidazole anti-inflammatory agents, such as bicyclic pyridinyl imidazoles SKF-86002, SB203580, and SB202190, were first found to inhibit p38 activity. SB inhibitors can antagonize p38 by competing for the ATP-binding pocket, and it has been suggested that Thr-106 could be important for this interaction.

4.2. Crude Plant Extracts

Natural plant extracts that target p38 are promising therapeutics for the treatment of inflammatory diseases (Table 2). For example, Scutellaria baicalensis extract attenuates MAPK phosphorylation, especially p38 activity, resulting in inhibition of inflammatory mediators such as COX-2, iNOS, L-1β, IL-12, IL-6, IL-2, PGE2, and TNF-α in RAW 264.7 cells treated with LPS. Phaseolus angularis ethanol extract suppressed the release of PGE2 and NO in macrophages activated by LPS-, Poly(I:C)-, or pam3CSK through regulation of TAK1/p38 pathways and, moreover, it ameliorated gastritis induced by EtOH/HCl in mice, which implies a close relationship between p38 and gastritis. Archidendron clypearia extract suppressed the production of PGE2 in activated RAW264.7 and peritoneal macrophages, as well as gastritis lesions in mouse stomachs exposed to EtOH/HCl. Unfortunately, p38 is not the only target of these extracts; they contain several other active ingredients and therefore are not good candidates for the development of p38-specific inhibitors. However, they are effective at treating inflammatory diseases because of their multiple targets and their ability to improve body's homeostatic defense responses. Meanwhile, as reported previously, during covering years 1981–2006, of the 974 small molecule new chemical entities, 63% were naturally derived or semisynthetic derivatives of naturally occurring products, which indicate the importance of plant extract in the drug development. In addition, we and other groups have found that various traditional plant extracts that target p38 kinase can reduce the symptoms of inflammatory diseases (unpublished data), such as gastritis, colitis, arthritis, and hepatitis. Plant extract data are summarized in Table 2.

4.3. Plant-Derived Compounds

Several compounds from natural products inhibit p38 activity and inflammatory responses (Table 3). Sugiol, an aditerpene that was isolated and purified from alcohol extracts of the bark of Calocedrus formosana, effectively decreased the production of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), IL-1β, and TNF-α in LPS-stimulated macrophages through regulation of MAPKs. Quercetin, a plant-derived flavonoid that is widely distributed in fruits and vegetables, strongly decreased the expression of the inflammatory cytokines iNOS and TNF-α by targeting both MAPK (ERK and p38) and IκBα signaling pathways. Sulfur-containing compounds from garlic inhibited the production of NO, PGE2, and proinflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in macrophages by suppressing p38 transduction pathways. A summary of natural products targeting p38 is provided in Table 3. These studies indicate that natural products inhibiting p38 activity exhibit strong anti-inflammatory properties, and are therefore potential therapeutic drug candidates for inflammatory diseases. Moreover, studies of natural compounds, in addition to elucidating why these extracts have strong anti-inflammatory effects, can also aid the design of novel p38 inhibitors to treat inflammatory diseases.

4.4. Novel Inhibitors

Pharmaceutical companies and researchers have worked hard to develop novel, safe, and specific p38 inhibitors. Based on the importance of p38α in inflammation, people have focused on inhibitors for this isoform rather than the other isoforms. ML3403, a SB203580 analogue, represses the expression of TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-8. It can bind to both active and inactive forms of p38α kinase, which may reduce asthma-induced airway inflammation and remodeling. AS1940477 has been shown to inhibit the production of proinflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, PEG2, and MMP3 at very low concentrations. Moreover, it can reduce the enzyme activity of both p38 α and β but has no effect on 100 other kinases, including p38γ and δ. It has been shown in rats experiment that low doses of this compound can also reduce the expression of LPS- and Con A-stimulated proinflammatory cytokines, including TNF-α and IL-6. Pamapimod strongly suppresses p38 α and β activity and therefore the expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6. It also shows high specific activity; when tested for binding to 350 kinases, it only bound to four other kinases in addition to p38. Furthermore, it can reduce clinical signs of inflammatory diseases, such as arthritis, bone loss, and renal diseases. Consistent with this, it inhibited TNF-α production in RA synovial explants and reduced bone loss in murine collagen-induced arthritis. Meanwhile, it increased pain tolerance in a rat model of hyperalgesia. Examples of other newly synthesized compounds are GSK-681323 to treat rheumatoid arthritis, SCIO-469 to treat multiple myeloma and dental pain, and RWJ67657 that was developed as an anti-inflammatory drug, all of which inhibit p38 activity. In summary, most of these inhibitors were designed based on the structure of SB203580 but show more specific and stronger activity. They are therefore promising therapeutic agents for inflammatory diseases.

4.5. Inhibitors in Human Clinical Trials

Based on the importance of p38 MAPK in disease development, inhibition of p38 was regarded as a promising therapeutic strategy to control inflammatory diseases. Right now, effectiveness of some p38 inhibitors is currently under evaluation in clinical trials to treat human diseases. For example, it has been reported that PH797804 and losmapimod were able to improve lung function parameters and to attenuate dyspnoea in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease symptoms. Also, losmapimod was reported to reduce vascular inflammation in the most inflamed regions in patients with atherosclerosis. Clinical and histological improvements linked to the inhibition of TNF-α level were clearly seen by p38 MAPK inhibitor adalimumab in lesional psoriatic skin. Moreover, it was found that pamapimod can clearly alleviate various rheumatoid arthritis symptoms when coadministered with methotrexate. Besides, there are still many other inhibitors which are ongoing clinical trials as summarized in Table 4.

5. Summary and Perspectives

Inflammation has attracted great interest because of its significant role in several major diseases and the need to develop better ways to treat these diseases. Importantly, because inflammatory responses are largely mediated by macrophages, functional studies of macrophages in inflammation are crucial. Investigation of the roles of p38 MAPKs is particularly relevant as these are essential protein kinases in macrophage-mediated inflammatory responses. A number of studies have indicated that p38 plays a significant role in inflammatory diseases mediated by macrophages, and, as a consequence, several p38 inhibitors have been developed to treat inflammatory diseases. However, most of these inhibitors have shortcomings, such as low specificity, low efficacy, and high toxicity. As a result, new p38 inhibitors are urgently required. We are optimistic that novel and safe p38 inhibitors that possess strong anti-inflammatory properties will be developed in the near future to treat inflammatory diseases.

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    Not in our library10.1128/mcb.25.23.10454-10464.2005

  43. 43.

    Xing B, Bachstetter AD, van Eldik LJ. Deficiency in p38beta MAPK fails to inhibit cytokine production or protect neurons against inflammatory insult in in vitro and in vivo mouse models. PLOS ONE. 2013;8(2).

    Not in our library10.1371/journal.pone.0056852

  44. 44.

    O’Keefe SJ, Mudgett JS, Cupo S, et al. Chemical genetics define the roles of p38α and p38β in acute and chronic inflammation. The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2007;282(48):34663-34671.

    Not in our library10.1074/jbc.m704236200

  45. 45.

    Sabio G, Arthur JSC, Kuma Y, et al. p38γ regulates the localisation of SAP97 in the cytoskeleton by modulating its interaction with GKAP. The EMBO Journal. 2005;24(6):1134-1145.

    Not in our library10.1038/sj.emboj.7600578

  46. 46.

    Risco A, del Fresno C, Mambol A, et al. p38gamma and p38delta kinases regulate the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)-induced cytokine production by controlling ERK1/2 protein kinase pathway activation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2012;109(28):11200-11205.

    Not in our library10.1073/pnas.1207290109

  47. 47.

    Cuenda A, Dorow DS. Differential activation of stress-activated protein kinase kinases SKK4/MKK7 and SKK1/MKK4 by the mixed-lineage kinase-2 and mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MKK) kinase-1. The Biochemical Journal. 1998;333, part 1:11-15.

    Not in our library10.1042/bj3330011

  48. 48.

    Takekawa M, Posas F, Saito H. A human homolog of the yeast Ssk2/Ssk22 MAP kinase kinase kinases, MTK1, mediates stress-induced activation of the p38 and JNK pathways. The EMBO Journal. 1997;16(16):4973-4982.

    Not in our library10.1093/emboj/16.16.4973

  49. 49.

    Hirai S-I, Katoh M, Terada M, et al. MST/MLK2, a member of the mixed lineage kinase family, directly phosphorylates and activates SEK1, an activator of c-Jun N-terminal kinase/stress-activated protein kinase. The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 1997;272(24):15167-15173.

    Not in our library10.1074/jbc.272.24.15167

  50. 50.

    Tibbles LA, Ing YL, Kiefer F, et al. MLK-3 activates the SAPK/JNK and p38/RK pathways via SEK1 and MKK3/6. The EMBO Journal. 1996;15(24):7026-7035.

    Not in our library

  51. 51.

    Ichijo H, Nishida E, Irie K, et al. Induction of apoptosis by ASK1, a mammalian MAPKKK that activates SAPK/JNK and p38 signaling pathways. Science. 1997;275(5296):90-94.

    Not in our library10.1126/science.275.5296.90

  52. 52.

    Lund S, Porzgen P, Mortensen AL, et al. Inhibition of microglial inflammation by the MLK inhibitor CEP-1347. Journal of Neurochemistry. 2005;92(6):1439-1451.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1471-4159.2005.03014.x

  53. 53.

    Liu HL, Zhang HQ, Iles KE, et al. The Adp-stimulated NADPH oxidase activates the ASK-1/MMK4/JNK pathway in alveolar macrophages. Free Radical Research. 2006;40(8):865-874.

    Not in our library10.1080/10715760600758514

  54. 54.

    Yang Y, Moh SH, Yu T, et al. Methanol extract of Osbeckia stellata suppresses lipopolysaccharide- and HCl/ethanol-induced inflammatory responses by inhibiting Src/Syk and IRAK1. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2012;143(3):876-883.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.jep.2012.08.015

  55. 55.

    Zhang S, Han J, Sells MA, et al. Rho family GTPases regulate p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase through the downstream mediator Pak1. The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 1995;270(41):23934-23936.

    Not in our library10.1074/jbc.270.41.23934

  56. 56.

    Bagrodia S, Derijard B, Davis RJ, Cerione RA. Cdc42 and PAK-mediated signaling leads to Jun kinase and p38 mitogen- activated protein kinase activation. The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 1995;270(47):27995-27998.

    Not in our library10.1074/jbc.270.47.27995

  57. 57.

    Yano M, Matsumura T, Senokuchi T, et al. Statins activate peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ through extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase-dependent cyclooxygenase-2 expression in macrophages. Circulation Research. 2007;100(10):1442-1451.

    Not in our library10.1161/01.res.0000268411.49545.9c

  58. 58.

    Martin GA, Bollag G, McCormick F, Abo A. A novel serine kinase activated by rac1/CDC42Hs-dependent autophosphorylation is related to PAK65 and STE20. The EMBO Journal. 1995;14(17):p. 4385.

    Not in our library10.1002/j.1460-2075.1995.tb00113.x

  59. 59.

    Manser E, Leung T, Salihuddin H, Zhao Z-S, Lim L. A brain serine/threonine protein kinase activated by Cdc42 and Rac1. Nature. 1994;367(6458):40-46.

    Not in our library10.1038/367040a0

  60. 60.

    Knaus UG, Morris S, Dong H-J, Chernoff J, Bokoch GM. Regulation of human leukocyte p21-activated kinases through G protein-coupled receptors. Science. 1995;269(5221):221-223.

    Not in our library10.1126/science.7618083

  61. 61.

    Rousseau S, Dolado I, Beardmore V, et al. CXCL12 and C5a trigger cell migration via a PAK1/2-p38α MAPK-MAPKAP-K2-HSP27 pathway. Cellular Signalling. 2006;18(11):1897-1905.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.cellsig.2006.02.006

  62. 62.

    Graves JD, Gotoh Y, Draves KE, et al. Caspase-mediated activation and induction of apoptosis by the mammalian Ste20-like kinase Mst1. The EMBO Journal. 1998;17(8):2224-2234.

    Not in our library10.1093/emboj/17.8.2224

  63. 63.

    Zu Y-L, Wu F, Gilchrist A, Ai Y, Labadia ME, Huang C-K. The primary structure of a human MAP kinase activated protein kinase 2. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 1994;200(2):1118-1124.

    Not in our library10.1006/bbrc.1994.1566

  64. 64.

    McLaughlin MM, Kumar S, McDonnell PC, et al. Identification of mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase-activated protein kinase-3, a novel substrate of CSBP p38 MAP kinase. The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 1996;271(14):8488-8492.

    Not in our library10.1074/jbc.271.14.8488

  65. 65.

    Guay J, Lambert H, Gingras-Breton G, Lavoie JN, Huot J, Landry J. Regulation of actin filament dynamics by p38 map kinase-mediated phosphorylation of heat shock protein 27. Journal of Cell Science. 1997;110, part 3:357-368.

    Not in our library10.1242/jcs.110.3.357

  66. 66.

    Tan Y, Rouse J, Zhang A, Cariati S, Cohen P, Comb MJ. FGF and stress regulate CREB and ATF-1 via a pathway involving p38 MAP kinase and MAPKAP kinase-2. The EMBO Journal. 1996;15(17):4629-4642.

    Not in our library

  67. 67.

    Fukunaga R, Hunter T. MNK1, a new MAP kinase-activated protein kinase, isolated by a novel expression screening method for identifying protein kinase substrates. The EMBO Journal. 1997;16(8):1921-1933.

    Not in our library10.1093/emboj/16.8.1921

  68. 68.

    Waskiewicz AJ, Flynn A, Proud CG, Cooper JA. Mitogen-activated protein kinases activate the serine/threonine kinases Mnk1 and Mnk2. The EMBO Journal. 1997;16(8):1909-1920.

    Not in our library10.1093/emboj/16.8.1909

  69. 69.

    New L, Jiang Y, Zhao M, et al. PRAK, a novel protein kinase regulated by the p38 MAP kinase. The EMBO Journal. 1998;17(12):3372-3384.

    Not in our library10.1093/emboj/17.12.3372

  70. 70.

    Deak M, Clifton AD, Lucocq JM, Alessi DR. Mitogen- and stress-activated protein kinase-1 (MSK1) is directly activated by MAPK and SAPK2/p38, and may mediate activation of CREB. The EMBO Journal. 1998;17(15):4426-4441.

    Not in our library10.1093/emboj/17.15.4426

  71. 71.
    A novel whole-cell lysate kinase assay identifies substrates of the p38 MAPK in differentiating myoblasts · 2012
    Not checked
  72. 72.

    Keyse SM. An emerging family of dual specificity MAP kinase phosphatases. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. 1995;1265(2-3):152-160.

    Not in our library10.1016/0167-4889(94)00211-v

  73. 73.

    Ono K, Han J. The p38 signal transduction pathway Activation and function. Cellular Signalling. 2000;12(1):1-13.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0898-6568(99)00071-6

  74. 74.

    Camps M, Nichols A, Gillieron C, et al. Catalytic activation of the phosphatase MKP-3 by ERK2 mitogen-activated protein kinase. Science. 1998;280(5367):1262-1265.

    Not in our library10.1126/science.280.5367.1262

  75. 75.

    Theodosiou A, Smith A, Gillieron C, Arkinstall S, Ashworth A. MKP5, a new member of the MAP kinase phosphatase family, which selectively dephosphorylates stress-activated kinases. Oncogene. 1999;18(50):6981-6988.

    Not in our library10.1038/sj.onc.1203185

  76. 76.

    Tanoue T, Yamamoto T, Maeda R, Nishida E. A Novel MAPK Phosphatase MKP-7 Acts Preferentially on JNK/SAPK and p38α and β MAPKs. The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2001;276(28):26629-26639.

    Not in our library10.1074/jbc.m101981200

  77. 77.

    Janknecht R, Hunter T. Convergence of MAP kinase pathways on the ternary complex factor Sap-1a. The EMBO Journal. 1997;16(7):1620-1627.

    Not in our library10.1093/emboj/16.7.1620

  78. 78.

    Wang X, Ron D. Stress-induced phosphorylation and activation of the transcription factor CHOP (GADD153) by p38 MAP kinase. Science. 1996;272(5266):1347-1349.

    Not in our library10.1126/science.272.5266.1347

  79. 79.

    Han J, Jiang Y, Li Z, Kravchenko VV, Ulevitch RJ. Activation of the transcription factor MEF2C by the MAP kinase p38 in inflammation. Nature. 1997;386(6622):296-299.

    Not in our library10.1038/386296a0

  80. 80.

    Zhao M, New L, Kravchenko VV, et al. Regulation of the MEF2 family of transcription factors by p38. Molecular and Cellular Biology. 1999;19(1):21-30.

    Not in our library10.1128/mcb.19.1.21

  81. 81.

    Huang C, Ma W-Y, Maxiner A, Sun Y, Dong Z. p38 kinase mediates UV-induced phosphorylation of p53 protein at serine 389. The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 1999;274(18):12229-12235.

    Not in our library10.1074/jbc.274.18.12229

  82. 82.

    Rehfuss RP, Walton KM, Loriaux MM, Goodman RH. The cAMP-regulated enhancer-binding protein ATF-1 activates transcription in response to cAMP-dependent protein kinase A. The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 1991;266(28):18431-18434.

    Not in our library

  83. 83.

    Ma Y, Pope RM. The role of macrophages in rheumatoid arthritis. Current Pharmaceutical Design. 2005;11(5):569-580.

    Not in our library10.2174/1381612053381927

  84. 84.

    Tesch GH. Role of macrophages in complications of Type 2 diabetes. Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology. 2007;34(10):1016-1019.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1440-1681.2007.04729.x

  85. 85.

    Nguyen D, Ping F, Mu W, Hill P, Atkins RC, Chadban SJ. Macrophage accumulation in human progressive diabetic nephropathy. Nephrology. 2006;11(3):226-231.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1440-1797.2006.00576.x

  86. 86.

    Fukumoto H, Naito Z, Asano G, Aramaki T. Immunohistochemical and morphometric evaluations of coronary atherosclerotic plaques associated with myocardial infarction and diabetes mellitus. Journal of Atherosclerosis and Thrombosis. 1998;5(1):29-35.

    Not in our library10.5551/jat1994.5.29

  87. 87.

    Said G, Lacroix C, Lozeron P, Ropert A, Planté V, Adams D. Inflammatory vasculopathy in multifocal diabetic neuropathy. Brain. 2003;126, part 2:376-385.

    Not in our library10.1093/brain/awg029

  88. 88.

    Tang S, Scheiffarth OF, Thurau SR, Wildner G. Cells of the immune system and their cytokines in epiretinal membranes and in the vitreous of patients with proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Ophthalmic Research. 1993;25(3):177-185.

    Not in our library10.1159/000267287

  89. 89.

    Qin B, Xiao B, Liang D, Li Y, Jiang T, Yang H. MicroRNA let-7c inhibits Bcl-xl expression and regulates ox-LDL-induced endothelial apoptosis. BMB Reports. 2012;45(8):464-469.

    Not in our library10.5483/bmbrep.2012.45.8.033

  90. 90.

    Findlay EG, Hussell T. Macrophage-mediated inflammation and disease: a focus on the lung. Mediators of Inflammation. 2012;2012:6 pages.

    Not in our library10.1155/2012/140937

  91. 91.

    Chawla A, Nguyen KD, Goh YPS. Macrophage-mediated inflammation in metabolic disease. Nature Reviews Immunology. 2011;11(11):738-749.

    Not in our library10.1038/nri3071

  92. 92.
    Diverse Roles of Macrophages in Atherosclerosis: From Inflammatory Biology to Biomarker Discovery · 2012
    No notice
  93. 93.

    Grip O, Janciauskiene S, Lindgren S. Macrophages in inflammatory bowel disease. Current Drug Targets. 2003;2(2):155-160.

    Not in our library10.2174/1568010033484179

  94. 94.

    Wynn TA, Barron L. Macrophages: master regulators of inflammation and fibrosis. Seminars in Liver Disease. 2010;30(3):245-257.

    Not in our library10.1055/s-0030-1255354

  95. 95.

    Yang WS, Park YC, Kim JH, et al. Nanostructured, self-assembling peptide K5 blocks TNF- and PGE 2 production by suppression of the AP-1/p38 pathway. Mediators of Inflammation. 2012;2012:8 pages.

    Not in our library10.1155/2012/489810

  96. 96.

    Byeon SE, Lee J, Yoo BC, et al. P38-Targeted inhibition of interleukin-12 expression by ethanol extract from Cordyceps bassiana in lipopolysaccharide-activated macrophages. Immunopharmacology and Immunotoxicology. 2011;33(1):90-96.

    Not in our library10.3109/08923973.2010.482137

  97. 97.

    Garcia J, Lemercier B, Roman-Roman S, Rawadi G. A Mycoplasma fermentans-derived synthetic lipopeptide induces AP-1 and NF-κB activity and cytokine secretion in macrophages via the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways. The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 1998;273(51):34391-34398.

    Not in our library10.1074/jbc.273.51.34391

  98. 98.

    Amirouche A, Tadesse H, Lunde JA, Bélanger G, Côté J, Jasmin BJ. Activation of p38 signaling increases utrophin A expression in skeletal muscle via the RNA-binding protein KSRP and inhibition of AU-rich element-mediated mRNA decay: implications for novel DMD therapeutics. Human Molecular Genetics. 2013;22(15):3093-3111.

    Not in our library10.1093/hmg/ddt165

  99. 99.

    Pietersma A, Tilly BC, Gaestel M, et al. P38 mitogen activated protein kinase regulates endothelial VCAM-1 expression at the post-transcriptional level. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 1997;230(1):44-48.

    Not in our library10.1006/bbrc.1996.5886

  100. 100.

    Guma M, Hammaker D, Topolewski K, et al. Antiinflammatory functions of p38 in mouse models of rheumatoid arthritis advantages of targeting upstream kinases MKK-3 or MKK-6. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 2012;64(9):2887-2895.

    Not in our library10.1002/art.34489

  101. 101.

    Jackson JR, Bolognese B, Hillegass L, et al. Pharmacological effects of SB 220025, a selective inhibitor of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, in angiogenesis and chronic inflammatory disease models. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 1998;284(2):687-692.

    Not in our library

  102. 102.

    Brando Lima AC, Machado AL, Simon P, et al. Anti-inflammatory effects of LASSBio-998, a new drug candidate designed to be a p38 MAPK inhibitor, in an experimental model of acute lung inflammation. Pharmacological Reports. 2011;63(4):1029-1039.

    Not in our library10.1016/s1734-1140(11)70619-3

  103. 103.

    Menghini R, Casagrande V, Menini S, et al. TIMP3 overexpression in macrophages protects from insulin resistance, adipose inflammation, and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in mice. Diabetes. 2012;61(2):454-462.

    Not in our library10.2337/db11-0613

  104. 104.

    Schett G, Zwerina J, Firestein G. The p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway in rheumatoid arthritis. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 2008;67(7):909-916.

    Not in our library10.1136/ard.2007.074278

  105. 105.

    Langer Lilleholt L, Johansen C, Arthur JSC, et al. Role of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase isoforms in murine skin inflammation induced by 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate. Acta Dermato-Venereologica. 2011;91(3):271-278.

    Not in our library10.2340/00015555-1046

  106. 106.

    Schindler EM, Hindes A, Gribben EL, et al. p38δ mitogen-activated protein kinase is essential for skin tumor development in mice. Cancer Research. 2009;69(11):4648-4655.

    Not in our library10.1158/0008-5472.can-08-4455

  107. 107.

    Kummer JL, Rao PK, Heidenreich KA. Apoptosis induced by withdrawal of trophic factors is mediated by p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase. The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 1997;272(33):20490-20494.

    Not in our library10.1074/jbc.272.33.20490

  108. 108.

    Takenaka K, Moriguchi T, Nishida E. Activation of the protein kinase p38 in the spindle assembly checkpoint and mitotic arrest. Science. 1998;280(5363):599-661.

    Not in our library10.1126/science.280.5363.599

  109. 109.

    Morooka T, Nishida E. Requirement of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase for neuronal differentiation in PC12 cells. The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 1998;273(38):24285-24288.

    Not in our library10.1074/jbc.273.38.24285

  110. 110.

    Engelman JA, Lisanti MP, Scherer PE. Specific inhibitors of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase block 3T3- L1 adipogenesis. The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 1999;273(48):32111-32120.

    Not in our library10.1074/jbc.273.48.32111

  111. 111.

    Schindler JF, Monahan JB, Smith WG. P38 pathway kinases as anti-inflammatory drug targets. Journal of Dental Research. 2007;86(9):800-811.

    Not in our library10.1177/154405910708600902

  112. 112.

    Lee JC, Griswold DE, Votta B, Hanna N. Inhibition of monocyte IL-1 production by the anti-inflammatory compound, SK&F 86002. International Journal of Immunopharmacology. 1988;10(7):835-843.

    Not in our library10.1016/0192-0561(88)90007-0

  113. 113.

    Lee JC, Kassis S, Kumar S, Badger A, Adams JL. p38 Mitogen-activated protein kinase inhibitors-mechanisms and therapeutic potentials. Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 1999;82(2-3):389-397.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0163-7258(99)00008-x

  114. 114.

    Gallagher TF, Fier-Thompson SM, Garigipati RS, et al. 2,4,5-triarylimidazole inhibitors of IL-1 biosynthesis. Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry Letters. 1995;5(11):1171-1176.

    Not in our library

  115. 115.

    Saklatvala J. The p38 MAP kinase pathway as a therapeutic target in inflammatory disease. Current Opinion in Pharmacology. 2004;4(4):372-377.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.coph.2004.03.009

  116. 116.

    Nemoto S, Xiang J, Huang S, Lin A. Induction of apoptosis by SB202190 through inhibition of p38β mitogen-activated protein kinase. The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 1998;273(26):16415-16420.

    Not in our library10.1074/jbc.273.26.16415

  117. 117.

    Lantos I, Bender PE, Razgaitis KA, et al. Antiinflammatory activity of 5,6-diaryl-2,3-dihydroimidazo[2,1-b]thiazoles. Isomeric 4-pyridyl and 4-substituted phenyl derivatives. Journal of Medicinal Chemistry. 1984;27(1):72-75.

    Not in our library10.1021/jm00367a014

  118. 118.

    Kim EH, Shim B, Kang S, et al. Anti-inflammatory effects of Scutellaria baicalensis extract via suppression of immune modulators and MAP kinase signaling molecules. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2009;126(2):320-331.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.jep.2009.08.027

  119. 119.

    Yu T, Ahn HM, Shen T, et al. Anti-inflammatory activity of ethanol extract derived from Phaseolus angularis beans. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2011;137(3):1197-1206.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.jep.2011.07.048

  120. 120.

    Ma HD, Deng YR, Tian Z, Lian ZX. Traditional Chinese medicine and immune regulation. Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology. 2013;44(3):229-241.

    Not in our library10.1007/s12016-012-8332-0

  121. 121.

    Amirghofran Z. Medicinal plants as immunosuppressive agents in traditional Iranian medicine. Iranian Journal of Immunology. 2010;7(2):65-73.

    Not in our library10.22034/iji.2010.17041

  122. 122.

    Shen ZY. Reviewing and evaluating of the traditional Chinese medicine affecting on immunological function. Zhongguo Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi. 1992;12(7):443-446.

    Not in our library

  123. 123.

    Yang J-X, Wang X-M. Progress in studies on anti-hepatoma effect of traditional Chinese medicine by adjusting immune function. Zhongguo Zhongyao Zazhi. 2007;32(4):281-284.

    Not in our library

  124. 124.

    Newman DJ, Cragg GM. Natural products as sources of new drugs over the last 25 years. Journal of Natural Products. 2007;70(3):461-477.

    Not in our library10.1021/np068054v

  125. 125.

    Chao K-P, Hua K-F, Hsu H-Y, Su Y-C, Chang S-T. Anti-inflammatory activity of sugiol, a diterpene isolated from Calocedrus formosana bark. Planta Medica. 2005;71(4):300-305.

    Not in our library10.1055/s-2005-864094

  126. 126.

    Cho S-Y, Park S-J, Kwon M-J, et al. Quercetin suppresses proinflammatory cytokines production through MAP kinases and NF-κB pathway in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated macrophage. Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry. 2003;243(1-2):153-160.

    Not in our library10.1023/a:1021624520740

  127. 127.

    Wadsworth TL, McDonald TL, Koop DR. Effects of Ginkgo biloba extract (EGb 761) and quercetin on lipopolysaccharide-induced signaling pathways involved in the release of tumor necrosis factor-α. Biochemical Pharmacology. 2001;62(7):963-974.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0006-2952(01)00734-1

  128. 128.

    Lee DY, Li H, Lim HJ, Lee HJ, Jeon R, Ryu JH. Anti-inflammatory activity of sulfur-containing compounds from garlic. Journal of Medicinal Food. 2012;15(11):992-999.

    Not in our library10.1089/jmf.2012.2275

  129. 129.

    Munoz L, Ramsay EE, Manetsch M, et al. Novel p38 MAPK inhibitor ML3403 has potent anti-inflammatory activity in airway smooth muscle. European Journal of Pharmacology. 2010;635(1–3):212-218.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ejphar.2010.02.037

  130. 130.

    Terajima M, Inoue T, Magari K, Yamazaki H, Higashi Y, Mizuhara H. Anti-inflammatory effect and selectivity profile of AS1940477, a novel and potent p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase inhibitor. European Journal of Pharmacology. 2013;698(1–3):455-462.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ejphar.2012.11.021

  131. 131.

    Hill RJ, Dabbagh K, Phippard D, et al. Pamapimod, a novel p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase inhibitor: preclinical analysis of efficacy and selectivity. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 2008;327(3):610-619.

    Not in our library10.1124/jpet.108.139006

  132. 132.

    MacNee W, Allan RJ, Jones I, de Salvo MC, Tan LF. Efficacy and safety of the oral p38 inhibitor PH-797804 in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a randomised clinical trial. Thorax. 2013;68(8):738-745.

    Not in our library10.1136/thoraxjnl-2012-202744

  133. 133.

    Lomas DA, Lipson DA, Miller BE, et al. An oral inhibitor of p38 MAP kinase reduces plasma fibrinogen in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 2012;52(3):416-424.

    Not in our library10.1177/0091270010397050

  134. 134.

    Elkhawad M, Rudd JH, Sarov-Blat L, et al. Effects of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase inhibition on vascular and systemic inflammation in patients with atherosclerosis. JACC: Cardiovascular Imaging. 2012;5(9):911-922.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.jcmg.2012.02.016

  135. 135.

    Soegaard-Madsen L, Johansen C, Iversen L, Kragballe K. Adalimumab therapy rapidly inhibits p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase activity in lesional psoriatic skin preceding clinical improvement. British Journal of Dermatology. 2010;162(6):1216-1223.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1365-2133.2010.09706.x

  136. 136.

    Zhang X, Huang Y, Navarro MT, Hisoire G, Caulfield JP. A proof-of-concept and drug-drug interaction study of pamapimod, a novel p38 MAP kinase inhibitor, with methotrexate in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 2010;50(9):1031-1038.

    Not in our library10.1177/0091270009357433

  137. 137.

    Bagley MC, Davis T, Dix MC, et al. Gram-scale synthesis of the p38α MAPK-inhibitor VX-745 for preclinical studies into Werner syndrome. Future Medicinal Chemistry. 2010;2(9):1417-1427.

    Not in our library10.4155/fmc.10.217

  138. 138.

    Liu C, Lin J, Wrobleski ST, et al. Discovery of 4-(5-(Cyclopropylcarbamoyl)-2-methylphenylamino)-5-methyl-N- propylpyrrolo[1,2-f ][1,2,4]triazine-6-carboxamide (BMS-582949), a clinical p38α MAP kinase inhibitor for the treatment of inflammatory diseases. Journal of Medicinal Chemistry. 2010;53(18):6629-6639.

    Not in our library10.1021/jm100540x

  139. 139.

    Sarov-Blat L, Morgan JM, Fernandez P, et al. Inhibition of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase reduces inflammation after coronary vascular injury in humans. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology. 2010;30(11):2256-2263.

    Not in our library10.1161/atvbaha.110.209205

  140. 140.

    Goldstein DM, Kuglstatter A, Lou Y, Soth MJ. Selective p38α inhibitors clinically evaluated for the treatment of chronic inflammatory disorders. Journal of Medicinal Chemistry. 2010;53(6):2345-2353.

    Not in our library10.1021/jm9012906

  141. 141.

    Sun Y, Li Y-H, Wu X-X, et al. Ethanol extract from Artemisia vestita, a traditional Tibetan medicine, exerts anti-sepsis action through down-regulating the MAPK and NF-κB pathways. International Journal of Molecular Medicine. 2006;17(5):957-962.

    Not in our library

  142. 142.

    Gayathri B, Manjula N, Vinaykumar KS, Lakshmi BS, Balakrishnan A. Pure compound from Boswellia serrata extract exhibits anti-inflammatory property in human PBMCs and mouse macrophages through inhibition of TNFα, IL-1β, NO and MAP kinases. International Immunopharmacology. 2007;7(4):473-482.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.intimp.2006.12.003

  143. 143.

    Kao E-S, Hsu J-D, Wang C-J, Yang S-H, Cheng S-Y, Lee H-J. Polyphenols extracted from Hibiscus sabdariffa L. inhibited lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation by improving antioxidative conditions and regulating cyclooxygenase-2 expression. Bioscience, Biotechnology and Biochemistry. 2009;73(2):385-390.

    Not in our library10.1271/bbb.80639

  144. 144.

    Burk DR, Senechal-Willis P, Lopez LC, Hogue BG, Daskalova SM. Suppression of lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory responses in RAW 264.7 murine macrophages by aqueous extract of Clinopodium vulgare L. (Lamiaceae). Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2009;126(3):397-405.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.jep.2009.09.026

  145. 145.

    Uto T, Suangkaew N, Morinaga O, Kariyazono H, Oiso S, Shoyama Y. Eriobotryae folium extract suppresses LPS-induced iNOS and COX-2 expression by inhibition of NF-κB and MAPK activation in murine macrophages. American Journal of Chinese Medicine. 2010;38(5):985-994.

    Not in our library10.1142/s0192415x10008408

  146. 146.

    Kwon O-K, Ahn K-S, Park J-W, et al. Ethanol extract of Elaeocarpus petiolatus inhibits lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation in macrophage cells. Inflammation. 2012;35(2):535-544.

    Not in our library10.1007/s10753-011-9343-3

  147. 147.

    Seo H-J, Huh J-E, Han J-H, et al. Polygoni rhizoma inhibits inflammatory response through inactivation of nuclear factor-kappaB and mitogen activated protein kinase signaling pathways in RAW264.7 mouse macrophage cells. Phytotherapy Research. 2012;26(2):239-245.

    Not in our library10.1002/ptr.3530

  148. 148.

    Jang S-H, Lee EK, Lim MJ, et al. Suppression of lipopolysaccharide-induced expression of inflammatory indicators in RAW 264.7 macrophage cells by extract prepared from Ginkgo biloba cambial meristematic cells. Pharmaceutical Biology. 2012;50(4):420-428.

    Not in our library10.3109/13880209.2011.610805

  149. 149.

    Oh Y-C, Cho W-K, Im GY, et al. Anti-inflammatory effect of Lycium Fruit water extract in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage cells. International Immunopharmacology. 2012;13(2):181-189.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.intimp.2012.03.020

  150. 150.

    Yang Y, Yu T, Lee YG, et al. Methanol extract of Hopea odorata suppresses inflammatory responses via the direct inhibition of multiple kinases. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2013;145(2):598-607.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.jep.2012.11.041

  151. 151.

    Chao LK, Hua KF, Hsu HY, Su YC, Chang ST. Bioactivity assay of extracts from Calocedrus macrolepis var. formosana bark. Bioresource Technology. 2006;97(18):2462-2465.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.biortech.2005.10.028

  152. 152.

    Ahn J-Y, Choi I-S, Shim J-Y, et al. The immunomodulator ginsan induces resistance to experimental sepsis by inhibiting Toll-like receptor-mediated inflammatory signals. European Journal of Immunology. 2006;36(1):37-45.

    Not in our library10.1002/eji.200535138

  153. 153.

    Zhou HY, Shin EM, Guo LY, et al. Anti-inflammatory activity of 4-methoxyhonokiol is a function of the inhibition of iNOS and COX-2 expression in RAW 264.7 macrophages via NF-κB, JNK and p38 MAPK inactivation. European Journal of Pharmacology. 2008;586(1–3):340-349.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ejphar.2008.02.044

  154. 154.

    Guo LY, Hung TM, Bae KH, et al. Anti-inflammatory effects of schisandrin isolated from the fruit of Schisandra chinensis Baill. European Journal of Pharmacology. 2008;591(1–3):293-299.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ejphar.2008.06.074

  155. 155.

    Kim JH, Kim DH, Baek SH, et al. Rengyolone inhibits inducible nitric oxide synthase expression and nitric oxide production by down-regulation of NF-κB and p38 MAP kinase activity in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. Biochemical Pharmacology. 2006;71(8):1198-1205.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.bcp.2005.12.031

  156. 156.

    Yun K-J, Shin J-S, Choi J-H, Back N-I, Chung H-G, Lee K-T. Quaternary alkaloid, pseudocoptisine isolated from tubers of Corydalis turtschaninovi inhibits LPS-induced nitric oxide, PGE2, and pro-inflammatory cytokines production via the down-regulation of NF-κB in RAW 264.7 murine macrophage cells. International Immunopharmacology. 2009;9(11):1323-1331.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.intimp.2009.08.001

  157. 157.

    Chen Q, Chen TH, Li WJ, et al. Mycoepoxydiene inhibits lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory responses through the of TRAF6 polyubiquitination. PLOS ONE. 2012;7(9).

    Not in our library10.1371/journal.pone.0044890

  158. 158.

    Park HH, Kim MJ, Li Y, et al. Britanin suppresses LPS-induced nitric oxide, PGE(2) and cytokine production via NF-kappa B and MAPK inactivation in RAW 264.7 cells. International Immunopharmacology. 2013;15(2):296-302.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.intimp.2012.12.005

  159. 159.

    Lee S, Park H-S, Notsu Y, et al. Effects of hyperin, isoquercitrin and quercetin on lipopolysaccharide- induced nitrite production in rat peritoneal macrophages. Phytotherapy Research. 2008;22(11):1552-1556.

    Not in our library10.1002/ptr.2529

  160. 160.

    Huang S-C, Ho C-T, Lin-Shiau S-Y, Lin J-K. Carnosol inhibits the invasion of B16/F10 mouse melanoma cells by suppressing metalloproteinase-9 through down-regulating nuclear factor-kappaB and c-Jun. Biochemical Pharmacology. 2005;69(2):221-232.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.bcp.2004.09.019

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