What is metabolic syndrome, and why are children getting it?

Abstract

Metabolic syndrome comprises a cluster of cardiovascular risk factors (hypertension, altered glucose metabolism, dyslipidemia, and abdominal obesity) that occur in obese children. However, metabolic syndrome can also occur in lean individuals, suggesting that obesity is a marker for the syndrome, not a cause. Metabolic syndrome is difficult to define, due to its nonuniform classification and reliance on hard cutoffs in the evaluation of disorders with non‐Gaussian distributions. Defining the syndrome is even more difficult in children, owing to racial and pubertal differences and lack of cardiovascular events. Lipid partitioning among specific fat depots is associated with insulin resistance, which can lead to mitochondrial overload and dysfunctional subcellular energy use and drive the various elements of metabolic syndrome. Multiple environmental factors, in particular a typical Western diet, drive mitochondrial overload, while other changes in Western society, such as stress and sleep deprivation, increase insulin resistance and the propensity for food intake. These culminate in an adverse biochemical phenotype, including development of altered glucose metabolism and early atherogenesis during childhood and early adulthood.

Shown for reading. Its publisher allows quoting it, not republishing it.

References 185

1. 1.

   Wijnhoven TM, van Raaij JM, Spinelli A, et al. WHO European Childhood Obesity Surveillance Initiative 2008: weight, height and body mass index in 6–9-year-old children. Pediatr. Obesity.

   Not in our library10.1111/j.2047-6310.2012.00090.x

2. 2.

   Ogden CL, Carroll MD, Kit BK, Flegal KM. Prevalence of obesity and trends in body mass index among US children and adolescents, 1999–2010. JAMA. 2012;307:483-483.

   Not in our library10.1001/jama.2012.40

3. 3.

   Dietz WH. Health consequences of obesity in youth: childhood predictors of adult disease. Pediatrics. 1998;101:518-525.

   Not in our library

4. 4.

   Must A, Strauss RS. Risks and consequences of childhood and adolescent obesity. Int. J. Obes. 1999;23:S2-S11.

   Not in our library10.1038/sj.ijo.0800852

5. 5.

   Styne DM. Childhood and adolescent obesity: prevalence and significance. Pediatr. Clin. N. Am. 2001;48:823-854.

   Not in our library10.1016/s0031-3955(05)70344-8

6. 6.

   Dietz WH. Health consequences of obesity in youth: childhood predictors of adulthood disease. Pediatrics. 1998;101(supp. 3):518-525.

   Not in our library

7. 7.

   Tirosh A, Shai I, Afek A, et al. Adolescent BMI trajectory and risk of diabetes versus coronary disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 2011;364:1315-1325.

   Not in our library10.1056/nejmoa1006992

8. 8.

   Ford ES, Giles WH, Dietz WH. Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome among US adults: findings from the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. JAMA. 2002;287:356-359.

   Not in our library10.1001/jama.287.3.356

9. 9.

   Must A, Jacques PF, Dallal GE, et al. Long-term morbidity and mortality of overweight adolescents. A follow-up of the Harvard Growth Study of 1922 to 1935. N. Engl. J. Med. 1992;327:1350-1355.

   Not in our library10.1056/nejm199211053271904

10. 10.

    Weiss R, Dziura J, Burgert TS, et al. Obesity and the metabolic syndrome in children and adolescents. N. Engl. J. Med. 2004;350:2362-2374.

    Not in our library10.1056/nejmoa031049

11. 11.

    Reaven GM. Banting lecture 1988. Role of insulin resistance in human disease. Diabetes. 1988;37:1595-1607.

    Not in our library10.2337/diab.37.12.1595

12. 12.

    Cornier MA, Dabelea D, Hernandez TL. The metabolic syndrome. Endocr. Rev. 2008;29:777-822.

    Not in our library10.1210/er.2008-0024

13. 13.

    Finkelstein EA, Khavjou OA, Thompson H, et al. Obesity and severe obesity forecasts through 2030. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2012;42:563-570.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.amepre.2011.10.026

14. 14.

    Prevention and control of non-communicable diseases. U.N. General Assembly. 2010.

    Not in our library

15. 15.

    Chan JM, Rimm EB, Colditz GA, et al. Obesity, fat distribution, and weight gain as risk factors for clinical diabetes in men. Diabetes Care. 1994;17:961-969.

    Not in our library10.2337/diacare.17.9.961

16. 16.

    McLaughlin T, Abbasi F, Cheal K, et al. Use of metabolic markers to identify overweight individuals who are insulin resistant. Ann. Int. Med. 2003;139:802-809.

    Not in our library10.7326/0003-4819-139-10-200311180-00007

17. 17.

    Abbasi F, Chu JW, Lamendola C, et al. Discrimination between obesity and insulin resistance in the relationship with adiponectin. Diabetes. 2004;53:585-590.

    Not in our library10.2337/diabetes.53.3.585

18. 18.

    Voulgari C, Tentolouris N, Dilaveris P, et al. Increased heart failure risk in normal-weight people with metabolic syndrome compared with metabolically healthy obese individuals. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2011;58:1343-1350.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.jacc.2011.04.047

19. 19.

    Wiegand S, Maikowski U, Blankenstein O, et al. Type 2 diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance in European children and adolescents with obesity—a problem that is no longer restricted to minority groups. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 2004;151:199-206.

    Not in our library10.1530/eje.0.1510199

20. 20.

    Biltoft CA, Muir A. The metabolic syndrome in children and adolescents: a clinician's guide. Adolesc. Med. State Art Rev. 2009;20:109-120.

    Not in our library

21. 21.

    Albrink MJ, Krauss RM, Lindgrem FT, et al. Intercorrelations among plasma high density lipoprotein, obesity and triglycerides in a normal population. Lipids. 1980;15:668-676.

    Not in our library10.1007/bf02534017

22. 22.

    Despres JP. Abdominal obesity as important component of insulin-resistance syndrome. Nutrition. 1993;9:452-459.

    Not in our library

23. 23.

    Kylin E. Studien uber das hypertonie-hyperglyka “mie-hyperurika” miesyndrom. Zentralbl. Inn. Med. 1923;44:105-127.

    Not in our library

24. 24.

    Luciano A, Zoppi G. Blood insulin values after the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) and the body composition in 30 obese children. Pediatr. Med. Chir. 1994;16:471-473.

    Not in our library

25. 25.

    Steinberger J, Daniels SR, Eckel RH, et al. Progress and challenges in Metabolic Syndrome in children and adolescents: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Atherosclerosis, Hypertension, and Obesity in the Young Committee of the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young; Council on Cardiovascular Nursing; and Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism. Circulation. 2009;119:628-647.

    Not in our library10.1161/circulationaha.108.191394

26. 26.

    Zimmet P, Alberti G, Kaufman F, et al. International Diabetes Federation Task Force on Epidemiology and Prevention of Diabetes. The metabolic syndrome in children and adolescents. Lancet. 2007;369:2059-2061.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0140-6736(07)60958-1

27. 27.

    Ford ES, Li C, Zhao G, et al. Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome among U.S. adolescents using the definition from the International Diabetes Federation. Diab. Care. 2008;31:587-589.

    Not in our library10.2337/dc07-1030

28. 28.

    Hannon TS, Janosky J, Arslanian SA. Longitudinal study of physiologic insulin resistance and metabolic changes of puberty. Ped. Research. 2006;60:759-763.

    Not in our library10.1203/01.pdr.0000246097.73031.27

29. 29.

    Moran A, Jacobs DRJ, Steinberger J, et al. Changes in insulin resistance and cardiovascular risk during adolescence: establishment of differential risk in males and females. Circulation. 2008;117:2361-2368.

    Not in our library10.1161/circulationaha.107.704569

30. 30.

    Dai S, Fulton JE, Harrist RB, Grunbaum JA, et al. Blood lipids in children: age-related patterns and association with body-fat indices: project HeartBeat! Am. J. Prev. Med. 2009;37(suppl 1):S56-S64.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.amepre.2009.04.012

31. 31.
    On the use of a continuous metabolic syndrome score in pediatric research · 2008

    No notice
32. 32.

    Liska D, Dufour S, Zern TL, et al. Interethnic differences in muscle, liver and abdominal fat partitioning in obese adolescents. PLoS One. 2007;27:e569.

    Not in our library10.1371/journal.pone.0000569

33. 33.

    Goodman E, Daniels SR, Meigs JB, Dolan LM. Instability in the diagnosis of metabolic syndrome in adolescents. Circulation. 2007;115:2316-2322.

    Not in our library10.1161/circulationaha.106.669994

34. 34.

    Weiss R, Shaw M, Savoye M, Caprio S. Obesity dynamics and cardiovascular risk factor stability in obese adolescents. Pediatr. Diabetes. 2009;10:360-367.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1399-5448.2008.00504.x

35. 35.

    Ogden CL, Carroll MD, Kit BK, Flegal KM. Prevalence of obesity and trends in body mass index among US children and adolescents, 1999–2010. JAMA. 2012;307:483-490.

    Not in our library10.1001/jama.2012.40

36. 36.

    Sinaiko AR, Caprio S. Insulin resistance. J. Pediatr. 2012;161:11-15.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.jpeds.2012.01.012

37. 37.

    Arslanian S, Suprasongsin C. Differences in the in vivo insulin secretion and sensitivity of healthy black versus white adolescents. J. Pediatr. 1996;129:440-443.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0022-3476(96)70078-1

38. 38.

    Caprio S, Hyman LD, McCarthy S, et al. Fat distribution and cardiovascular risk factors in obese adolescent girls: importance of the intraabdominal fat depot. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1996;64:12-17.

    Not in our library10.1093/ajcn/64.1.12

39. 39.

    Sinha R, Fisch G, Teague B, et al. Prevalence of impaired glucose tolerance among children and adolescents with marked obesity. N. Engl. J. Med. 2002;346:802-810.

    Not in our library10.1056/nejmoa012578

40. 40.

    Sorof JM, Lai D, Turner J, et al. Overweight, ethnicity, and the prevalence of hypertension in school-aged children. Pediatrics. 2004;113:475-482.

    Not in our library10.1542/peds.113.3.475

Cited by papers we hold 5

• Skin disease related to metabolic syndrome in women · 2019
  Not checked
• Insulin Resistance in Children · 2019
  No notice
• Obesity, Metabolic Syndrome, and Musculoskeletal Disease: Common Inflammatory Pathways Suggest a Central Role for Loss of Muscle Integrity · 2018
  No notice
• Effects of Polyphenol Intake on Metabolic Syndrome: Current Evidences from Human Trials · 2017
  No notice
• A non-traditional model of the metabolic syndrome: the adaptive significance of insulin resistance in fasting-adapted seals · 2013
  Not checked

Reads

A person counts once a day per paper. We keep no cookie and no address: a reader is a hash that changes every day. Any month under five reads shows no number.