Salmon lice – impact on wild salmonids and salmon aquaculture

Abstract

Salmon lice, L epeophtheirus salmonis , are naturally occurring parasites of salmon in sea water. Intensive salmon farming provides better conditions for parasite growth and transmission compared with natural conditions, creating problems for both the salmon farming industry and, under certain conditions, wild salmonids. Salmon lice originating from farms negatively impact wild stocks of salmonids, although the extent of the impact is a matter of debate. Estimates from Ireland and Norway indicate an odds ratio of 1.1:1‐1.2:1 for sea lice treated Atlantic salmon smolt to survive sea migration compared to untreated smolts. This is considered to have a moderate population regulatory effect. The development of resistance against drugs most commonly used to treat salmon lice is a serious concern for both wild and farmed fish. Several large initiatives have been taken to encourage the development of new strategies, such as vaccines and novel drugs, for the treatment or removal of salmon lice from farmed fish. The newly sequenced salmon louse genome will be an important tool in this work. The use of cleaner fish has emerged as a robust method for controlling salmon lice, and aquaculture production of wrasse is important towards this aim. Salmon lice have large economic consequences for the salmon industry, both as direct costs for the prevention and treatment, but also indirectly through negative public opinion.

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     Sevatdal S, Horsberg TE. Determination of reduced sensitivity in sea lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis Krøyer) against the pyrethroid deltamethrin using bioassays and probit modelling. Aquaculture. 2003;218:21-31.

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     Sevatdal S, Copley L, Wallace C, Jackson D, Horsberg TE. Monitoring of the sensitivity of sea lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis) to pyrethroids in Norway, Ireland and Scotland using bioassays and probit modelling. Aquaculture. 2005a;244:19-27.

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     Sevatdal S, Fallang A, Ingebrigtsen K, Horsberg TE. Monooxygenase mediated pyrethroid detoxification in sea lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis. Pest Management Science. 2005b;61:772-778.

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     Skern-Mauritzen R, Malde K, Furmanec T, Reinhardt R, Koop BF, Nilsen F. The Salmon Louse Genome Project. Sea Lice 2012. 2012.

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     Skilbrei OT, Wennevik V. Survival and growth of sea-ranched Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., treated against sea lice before release. ICES Journal of Marine Science. 2006;63:1317-1325.

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     Skilbrei OT, Glover KA, Samuelsen OB, Lunestad BT. A laboratory study to evaluate the use of emamectin benzoate in the control of sea lice in sea-ranched Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Aquaculture. 2008;285:2-7.

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     Skilbrei OT, Holst JC, Asplin L, Holm M. Vertical movements of “escaped” farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.)-025EFa simulation study in a western Norwegian fjord. ICES Journal of Marine Science. 2009;66:278-288.

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     Skilbrei OT, Finstad B, Urdal K, Bakke G, Kroglund F, Strand R. Impact of early salmon louse (Lepeophtheirus salmonis) infestation, and differences in survival and marine growth of sea ranched Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) smolts 1997–2009. Journal of Fish Diseases. 2012;36:249-260.

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     Local and systemic gene expression responses of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) to infection with the salmon louse (Lepeophtheirus salmonis) · 2008

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     Smith MD, Roheim CA, Crowder LB, Halpern BS, Turnipseed M, Anderson JL, Asche F, Bourillon L, Guttormsen AG, Khan A, Liguori LA, McNevin A, O'connor MI, Squires D, Tyedmers P, Brownstein C, Carden K, Klinger DH, Sagarin R, Selkoe KA. Sustainability and global seafood. Science. 2010;327:784-786.

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     Stien A, Bjorn PA, Heuch PA, Elston DA. Population dynamics of salmon lice Lepeophtheirus salmonis on Atlantic salmon and sea trout. Marine Ecology-Progress Series. 2005;290:263-275.

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     Stone J, Sutherland IH, Sommerville C, Richards RH, Endris RG. The duration of efficacy following oral treatment with emamectin benzoate against infestations of sea lice, Lepeophtheirus salmonis (Kroyer), in Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L. Journal of Fish Diseases. 2000a;23:185-192.

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     Stone J, Sutherland IH, Sommerville C, Richards RH, Varma KJ. Field trials to evaluate the efficacy of emamectin benzoate in the control of sea lice, Lepeophtheirus salmonis (Kroyer) and Caligus elongatus Nordmann, infestations in Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L. Aquaculture. 2000b;186:205-219.

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     Stucchi DJ, Guo M, Foreman MGG, Czajko P, Galbraith M, Mackas DL, Gillibrand PA, Jones S, Beamish R. Modeling sea lice production and concentrations in the Broughton Archipelago, British Columbia. Salmon Lice: An Integrated Approach to Understanding Parasite Abundance and Distribution. 2011;117-150.

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     Sutherland BJG, Jantzen SG, Sanderson DS, Koop BF, Jones SRM. Differentiating size-dependent responses of juvenile pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) to sea lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis) infections. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology D: Genomics & Proteomics. 2011;6:213-223.

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     Sutherland BJG, Jantzen SG, Yasuike M, Sanderson DS, Koop BF, Jones SRM. Transcriptomics of coping strategies in free-swimming Lepeophtheirus salmonis (Copepoda) larvae responding to abiotic stress. Molecular Ecology. 2012.

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     Gene expression analyses of immune responses in Atlantic salmon during early stages of infection by salmon louse (Lepeophtheirus salmonis) revealed bi-phasic responses coinciding with the copepod-chalimus transition · 2011

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     Taranger GL, Svåsand T, Bjørn PA, Jansen PA, Heuch PA, Grøntvedt RN, Asplin L, Skilbrei OT, Glover K, Skaala Ø, Wennevik V, Boxaspen KK. Forslag til førstegenerasjons målemetode for miljøeffekt (effektindikatorer) med hensyn til genetisk påvirkning fra oppdrettsfisk til villaks, og påvirkning av lakselus fra oppdrett på viltlevende laksebestander. (Suggestions for a first generation indicators for environmental impacts of salmon farming with respect to genetical influence and effect of sea lice on wild salmon populations). 2012;1-40.

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     Forbruk av legemidler i norsk fiskeoppdrett i 2001–2008 (Consumption of Pharmaceuticals in Norwegian Aquaculture 2001–2008). 2012.

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     Tjensvoll K, Glover KA, Nylund A. Sequence variation in four mitochondrial genes of the salmon louse Lepeophtheirus salmonis. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms. 2006;68:251-259.

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     Todd CD, Walker AM, Hoyle JE, Northcott SJ, Walker AF, Ritchie MG. Infestations of wild adult Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) by the ectoparasitic copepod sea louse Lepeophtheirus salmonis Kroyer: prevalence, intensity and the spatial distribution of males and females on the host fish. Hydrobiologia. 2000;429:181-196.

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     Torrissen O, Olsen RE, Toresen R, Hemre GI, Tacon AGJ, Asche F, Hardy RW, Lall S. Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar): the “super-chicken” of the sea? Reviews in Fisheries Science. 2011;19:257-278.

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     Tribble ND, Burka JF, Kibenge FSB. Evidence for changes in the transcription levels of two putative P-glycoprotein genes in sea lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis) in response to emamectin benzoate exposure. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology. 2007;153:59-65.

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     Trudel M, Jones SRM, Thiess ME, Morris JFT, Welch DW, Sweeting RM, Moss JH, Wing BL, Farley EV, Murphy JM, Grimes CB, Brodeur RD, Haldorsen LJ, McKinnell SM. Infestations of motile salmon lice on Pacific salmon along the west coast of North America. The Ecology of juvenile salmon in the Northeast Pacific ocean: regional comparisons. 2007;157-182.

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     Tucker CS, Sommerville C, Wootten R. An investigation into the larval energetics and settlement of the sea louse, Lepeophtheirus salmonis, an ectoparasitic copepod of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar. Fish Pathology. 2000;35:137-143.

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     Tucker CS, Sommerville C, Wootten R. Does size really matter? Effects of fish surface area on the settlement and initial survival of Lepeophtheirus salmonis, an ectoparasite of Atlantic salmon Salmo salar. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms. 2002;49:145-152.

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     Tully O, Whelan KF. Production of nauplii of Lepeophtheirus salmonis (Krøyer) (Copepoda: Caligidae) from farmed and wild salmon and its relation to the infestation of wild sea trout (Salmo trutta L.) off the west coast of Ireland in 1991. Fisheries Research. 1993;17:187-200.

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     Tveterås R. Industrial agglomeration and production costs in Norwegian salmon aquaculture. Marine Resource Economics. 2002;17:1-22.

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     Wagner GN, Fast MD, Johnson SC. Physiology and immunology of Lepeophtheirus salmonis infections of salmonids. Trends in Parasitology. 2008;24:176-183.

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     Westcott JD, Stryhn H, Burka JF, Hammell KL. Optimization and field use of a bioassay to monitor sea lice Lepeophtheirus salmonis sensitivity to emamectin benzoate. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms. 2008;79:119-131.

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     White HC. Sea lice (Lepeophtheirus) and death of salmon. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada. 1940;5:172-175.

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     Yazawa R, Yasuike M, Leong J, Von Schalburg KR, Cooper GA, Beetz-Sargent M, Robb A, Davidson WS, Jones SRM, Koop BF. EST and mitochondrial DNA sequences support a distinct Pacific form of salmon louse, Lepeophtheirus salmonis. Marine Biotechnology. 2008;10:741-749.

     Not in our library10.1007/s10126-008-9112-y

Cited by papers we hold 4

• The FTZ-F1 gene encodes two functionally distinct nuclear receptor isoforms in the ectoparasitic copepod salmon louse (Lepeophtheirus salmonis). · 2021
  Not checked
• Practices to obtain lice counts at Norwegian salmon farms: status and possible implications for representativity · 2019
  Not checked
• Quantitative risk assessment of salmon louse-induced mortality of seaward-migrating post-smolt Atlantic salmon · 2018
  Not checked
• Toward a model-based prediction system for salmon lice infestation pressure · 2016
  Not checked

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