Practitioner Review: What have we learnt about the causes of ADHD?

Abstract

Background: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and its possible causes still attract controversy. Genes, pre and perinatal risks, psychosocial factors and environmental toxins have all been considered as potential risk factors. Method: This review (focussing on literature published since 1997, selected from a search of PubMed) critically considers putative risk factors with a focus on genetics and selected environmental risks, examines their relationships with ADHD and discusses the likelihood that these risks are causal as well as some of the main implications. Results: No single risk factor explains ADHD. Both inherited and noninherited factors contribute and their effects are interdependent. ADHD is familial and heritable. Research into the inherited and molecular genetic contributions to ADHD suggest an important overlap with other neurodevelopmental problems, notably, autism spectrum disorders. Having a biological relative with ADHD, large, rare copy number variants, some small effect size candidate gene variants, extreme early adversity, pre and postnatal exposure to lead and low birth weight/prematurity have been most consistently found as risk factors, but none are yet known to be definitely causal. There is a large literature documenting associations between ADHD and a wide variety of putative environmental risks that can, at present, only be regarded as correlates. Findings from research designs that go beyond simply testing for association are beginning to contest the robustness of some environmental exposures previously thought to be ADHD risk factors. Conclusions: The genetic risks implicated in ADHD generally tend to have small effect sizes or be rare and often increase risk of many other types of psychopathology. Thus, they cannot be used for prediction, genetic testing or diagnostic purposes beyond what is predicted by a family history. There is a need to consider the possibility of parents and siblings being similarly affected and how this might impact on engagement with families, influence interventions and require integration with adult services. Genetic contributions to disorder do not necessarily mean that medications are the treatment of choice. We also consider how findings might influence the conceptualisation of ADHD, public health policy implications and why it is unhelpful and incorrect to dichotomise genetic/biological and environmental explanations. It is essential that practitioners can interpret genetic and aetiological research findings and impart informed explanations to families.

Shown for reading. Its publisher allows quoting it, not republishing it.

References 121

1. 1.

   Alberts-Corush J, Firestone P, Goodman JT. Attention and impulsivity characteristics of the biological and adoptive parents of hyperactive and normal control children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. 1986;56:413-423.

   Not in our library10.1111/j.1939-0025.1986.tb03473.x

2. 2.

   Andrews G, Pine DS, Hobbs MJ, Anderson TM, Sunderland M. Neurodevelopmental disorders: Cluster 2 of the proposed meta-structure for DSM-V and ICD-11. [Review]. Psychological Medicine. 2009;39:2013-2023.

   Not in our library10.1017/s0033291709990274

3. 3.

   Antshel KM, Fremont W, Roizen NJ, Shprintzen R, Higgins AM, Dhamoon A, Kates WR. ADHD, major depressive disorder, and simple phobias are prevalent psychiatric conditions in youth with velocardiofacial syndrome. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2006;45:596-603.

   Not in our library10.1097/01.chi.0000205703.25453.5a

4. 4.

   Arnold LE, DiSilvestro RA. Zinc in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology. 2005;15:619-627.

   Not in our library10.1089/cap.2005.15.619

5. 5.

   Bailey A, Le Couteur A, Gottesman I, Bolton P, Simonoff E, Yuzda E, Rutter M. Autism as a strongly genetic disorder: Evidence from a British twin study. Psychological Medicine. 1995;25:63-77.

   Not in our library10.1017/s0033291700028099

6. 6.

   Bellinger DC. Very low lead exposures and children’s neurodevelopment. Current Opinion in Pediatrics. 2008a;20:172-177.

   Not in our library10.1097/mop.0b013e3282f4f97b

7. 7.
   Neurological and behavioral consequences of childhood lead exposure. · 2008

   Not checked
8. 8.

   Bhutta AT, Cleves MA, Casey PH, Cradock MM, Anand KJ. Cognitive and behavioral outcomes of school-aged children who were born preterm: A meta-analysis. Journal of the American Medical Association. 2002;288:728-737.

   Not in our library10.1001/jama.288.6.728

9. 9.

   Bouchard MF, Bellinger DC, Wright RO, Weisskopf MG. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and urinary metabolites of organophosphate pesticides. Pediatrics. 2010;125:e1270-e1277.

   Not in our library10.1542/peds.2009-3058

10. 10.
    Exposures to Environmental Toxicants and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in U.S. Children · 2006

    No notice
11. 11.

    Cantwell DP. Genetics of hyperactivity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 1975;16:261-264.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1469-7610.1975.tb01275.x

12. 12.

    Caspi A, Hariri AR, Holmes A, Uher R, Moffitt TE. Genetic sensitivity to the environment: The case of the serotonin transporter gene and its implications for studying complex diseases and traits. The American Journal of Psychiatry. 2010;167:509-527.

    Not in our library10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.09101452

13. 13.

    Caspi A, Langley K, Milne B, Moffitt TE, O’Donovan MC, Owen MJ, Thapar A. A replicated molecular genetic basis for subtyping antisocial behavior in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry. 2008;65:203-210.

    Not in our library10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2007.24

14. 14.

    Caspi A, Sugden K, Moffitt TE, Taylor A, Craig IW, Harrington H, Poulton R. Influence of life stress on depression: Moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene. Science. 2003;301:386-389.

    Not in our library10.1126/science.1083968

15. 15.

    Cirulli ET, Goldstein DB. Uncovering the roles of rare variants in common disease through whole-genome sequencing. Nature Reviews Genetics. 2010;11:415-425.

    Not in our library10.1038/nrg2779

16. 16.

    Cole J, Ball HA, Martin NC, Scourfield J, McGuffin P. Genetic overlap between measures of hyperactivity/inattention and mood in children and adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2009;48:1094-1101.

    Not in our library10.1097/chi.0b013e3181b7666e

17. 17.

    Collishaw S, Maughan B, Natarajan L, Pickles A. Trends in adolescent emotional problems in England: a comparison of two national cohorts twenty years apart. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 2010;51:885-894.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02252.x

18. 18.

    Cooper GM, Coe BP, Girirajan S, Rosenfeld JA, Vu TH, Baker C, Eichler EE. A copy number variation morbidity map of developmental delay. Nature Genetics. 2011;43:838-846.

    Not in our library10.1038/ng.909

19. 19.

    Costello EJ, Compton SN, Keeler G, Angold A. Relationships between poverty and psychopathology: A natural experiment. Journal of the American Medical Association. 2003;290:2023-2029.

    Not in our library10.1001/jama.290.15.2023

20. 20.

    Cunningham L, Cadoret RJ, Loftus R, Edwards JE. Studies of adoptees from psychiatrically disturbed biological parents: Psychiatric conditions in childhood and adolescence. British Journal of Psychiatry. 1975;126:534-549.

    Not in our library10.1192/bjp.126.6.534

21. 21.

    D’Onofrio B, Singh AL, Iliadou A, Lambe M, Hultman CM, Grann M, Lichtenstein P. Familial confounding of the association between maternal smoking during pregnancy and offspring criminality: A population-based study in Sweden. Archives of General Psychiatry. 2010;67:529-538.

    Not in our library10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.33

22. 22.

    D’Onofrio BM, Van Hulle CA, Waldman ID, Rodgers JL, Harden KP, Rathouz PJ, Lahey BB. Smoking during pregnancy and offspring externalizing problems: An exploration of genetic and environmental confounds. Development and Psychopathology. 2008;20:139-164.

    Not in our library10.1017/s0954579408000072

23. 23.

    Elia J, Gai X, Xie HM, Perin JC, Geiger E, Glessner JT, White PS. Rare structural variants found in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder are preferentially associated with neurodevelopmental genes. Mol Psychiatry. 2010;15:637-646.

    Not in our library10.1038/mp.2009.57

24. 24.
    Organophosphate Pesticide Exposure and Neurodevelopment in Young Mexican-American Children · 2007

    No notice
25. 25.
    Lead and PCBs as Risk Factors for Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder · 2010

    No notice
26. 26.

    Famularo R, Kinscherff R, Fenton T. Psychiatric diagnoses of maltreated children: Preliminary findings. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 1992;31:863-867.

    Not in our library10.1097/00004583-199209000-00013

27. 27.

    Faraone SV, Perlis RH, Doyle AE, Smoller JW, Goralnick JJ, Holmgren MA, Sklar P. Molecular genetics of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry. 2005;57:1313-1323.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.11.024

28. 28.

    Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ. Predictive validity of categorically and dimensionally scored measures of disruptive childhood behaviors. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 1995;34:477-487.

    Not in our library

29. 29.

    Joint FAO/WHO expert committee on food additives, seventy-third meeting, summary and conclusions. 2010.

    Not in our library

30. 30.

    Franke B, Neale BM, Faraone SV. Genome-wide association studies in ADHD. Human Genetics. 2009;126:13-50.

    Not in our library10.1007/s00439-009-0663-4

31. 31.

    Froehlich TE, Lanphear BP, Auinger P, Hornung R, Epstein JN, Braun J, Kahn RS. Association of tobacco and lead exposures with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics. 2009;124:e1054-e1063.

    Not in our library10.1542/peds.2009-0738

32. 32.

    Gizer IR, Ficks C, Waldman ID. Candidate gene studies of ADHD: A meta-analytic review. Human Genetics. 2009;126:51-90.

    Not in our library10.1007/s00439-009-0694-x

33. 33.

    Glessner JT, Wang K, Cai G, Korvatska O, Kim CE, Wood S, Hakonarson H. Autism genome-wide copy number variation reveals ubiquitin and neuronal genes. Nature. 2009;459:569-573.

    Not in our library10.1038/nature07953

34. 34.

    Glover V. Annual Research Review: Prenatal stress and the origins of psychopathology: An evolutionary perspective. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 2011;52:356-367.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02371.x

35. 35.

    Grizenko N, Shayan YR, Polotskaia A, Ter-Stepanian M, Joober R. Relation of maternal stress during pregnancy to symptom severity and response to treatment in children with ADHD. Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience. 2008;33:10-16.

    Not in our library

36. 36.

    Groen-Blokhuis MM, Middeldorp CM, van Beijsterveldt CE, Boomsma DI. Evidence for a causal association of low birth weight and attention problems. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2011;50:1247-1254.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.jaac.2011.09.007

37. 37.

    Grozeva D, Conrad DF, Barnes CP, Hurles M, Owen MJ, O’Donovan MC. Independent estimation of the frequency of rare CNVs in the UK population confirms their role in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research. 2012;135:1-7.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.schres.2011.11.004

38. 38.

    Grozeva D, Kirov G, Ivanov D, Jones IR, Jones L, Green EK. Rare copy number variants: A point of rarity in genetic risk for bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry. 2010;67:318-327.

    Not in our library10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.25

39. 39.

    Harold GT, Rice F, Hay DF, Boivin J, van den Bree M, Thapar A. Familial transmission of depression and antisocial behavior symptoms: Disentangling the contribution of inherited and environmental factors and testing the mediating role of parenting. Psychological Medicine. 2011;41:1175-1185.

    Not in our library10.1017/s0033291710001753

40. 40.

    Jaffee SR, Caspi A, Moffitt TE, Polo-Tomas M, Price TS, Taylor A. The limits of child effects: Evidence for genetically mediated child effects on corporal punishment but not on physical maltreatment. Developmental Psychology. 2004;40:1047-1058.

    Not in our library10.1037/0012-1649.40.6.1047

41. 41.

    Johnston C, Mash EJ, Miller N, Ninowski JE. Parenting in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Clinical Psychology Review. 2012;32:215-228.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.cpr.2012.01.007

42. 42.

    Kozielec T, Starobrat-Hermelin B. Assessment of magnesium levels in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Magnesium Research. 1997;10:143-148.

    Not in our library

43. 43.

    Kraemer HC, Stice E, Kazdin A, Offord D, Kupfer D. How do risk factors work together? Mediators, moderators, and independent, overlapping, and proxy risk factors. American Journal of Psychiatry. 2001;158:848-856.

    Not in our library10.1176/appi.ajp.158.6.848

44. 44.

    Lahey BB, D’Onofrio B, Waldman ID. Using epidemiologic methods to test hypotheses regarding causal influences on child and adolescent mental disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 2009;50:53-62.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01980.x

45. 45.

    Lander ES. Initial impact of the sequencing of the human genome. Nature. 2011;470:187-197.

    Not in our library10.1038/nature09792

46. 46.

    Langley K, Fowler T, Ford T, Thapar AK, Van den Bree M, Harold G, Thapar A. Adolescent clinical outcomes for young people with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry. 2010;196:235-240.

    Not in our library10.1192/bjp.bp.109.066274

47. 47.

    Langley K, Heron J, O’Donovan MC, Owen MJ, Thapar A. Genotype link with extreme antisocial behavior: The contribution of cognitive pathways. Archives of General Psychiatry. 2010;67:1317-1323.

    Not in our library10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.163

48. 48.

    Langley K, Martin J, Agha SS, Davies C, Stergiakouli E, Holmans P, Thapar A. Clinical and cognitive characteristics of children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, with and without copy number variants. British Journal of Psychiatry. 2011;199:398-403.

    Not in our library10.1192/bjp.bp.111.092130

49. 49.

    Langley K, Rice F, van den Bree MB, Thapar A. Maternal smoking during pregnancy as an environmental risk factor for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder behaviour. A review. Minerva Pediatrica. 2005;57:359-371.

    Not in our library

50. 50.

    Lesch KP, Selch S, Renner TJ, Jacob C, Nguyen TT, Hahn T, Ullmann R. Genome-wide copy number variation analysis in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Association with neuropeptide Y gene dosage in an extended pedigree. Molecular Psychiatry. 2011;16:491-503.

    Not in our library10.1038/mp.2010.29

51. 51.

    Lewis G, Rice F, Harold GT, Collishaw S, Thapar A. Investigating environmental links between parent depression and child depressive/anxiety symptoms using an assisted conception design. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2011;50:451-459.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.jaac.2011.01.015

52. 52.

    Li D, Sham PC, Owen MJ, He L. Meta-analysis shows significant association between dopamine system genes and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Human Molecular Genetics. 2006;15:2276-2284.

    Not in our library10.1093/hmg/ddl152

53. 53.

    Lichtenstein P, Carlstrom E, Rastam M, Gillberg C, Anckarsater H. The genetics of autism spectrum disorders and related neuropsychiatric disorders in childhood. American Journal of Psychiatry. 2010;167:1357-1363.

    Not in our library10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10020223

54. 54.

    Lifford KJ, Harold GT, Thapar A. Parent–child relationships and ADHD symptoms: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. 2008;36:285-296.

    Not in our library10.1007/s10802-007-9177-5

55. 55.

    Lifford KJ, Harold GT, Thapar A. Parent–child hostility and child ADHD symptoms: A genetically sensitive and longitudinal analysis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 2009;50:1468-1476.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02107.x

56. 56.

    Linnet KM, Dalsgaard S, Obel C, Wisborg K, Henriksen TB, Rodriguez A, Jarvelin MR. Maternal lifestyle factors in pregnancy risk of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and associated behaviors: Review of the current evidence. American Journal of Psychiatry. 2003;160:1028-1040.

    Not in our library10.1176/appi.ajp.160.6.1028

57. 57.

    Maher B. Personal genomes: The case of the missing heritability. Nature. 2008;456:18-21.

    Not in our library10.1038/456018a

58. 58.
    Organophosphate Pesticide Exposure and Attention in Young Mexican-American Children: The CHAMACOS Study · 2010

    No notice
59. 59.

    Mechelli A, Tognin S, McGuire PK, Prata D, Sartori G, Fusar-Poli P, Viding E. Genetic vulnerability to affective psychopathology in childhood: A combined voxel-based morphometry and functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Biological Psychiatry. 2009;66:231-237.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.01.033

60. 60.

    Meyer-Lindenberg A, Weinberger DR. Intermediate phenotypes and genetic mechanisms of psychiatric disorders. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2006;7:818-827.

    Not in our library10.1038/nrn1993

61. 61.

    Mier D, Kirsch P, Meyer-Lindenberg A. Neural substrates of pleiotropic action of genetic variation in COMT: A meta-analysis. Molecular Psychiatry. 2010;15:918-927.

    Not in our library10.1038/mp.2009.36

62. 62.

    Mill J, Petronis A. Pre- and peri-natal environmental risks for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): The potential role of epigenetic processes in mediating susceptibility. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 2008;49:1020-1030.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01909.x

63. 63.

    Monuteaux MC, Biederman J, Doyle AE, Mick E, Faraone SV. Genetic risk for conduct disorder symptom subtypes in an ADHD sample: Specificity to aggressive symptoms. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2009;48:757-764.

    Not in our library10.1097/chi.0b013e3181a5661b

64. 64.

    Morrison JR, Stewart MA. The psychiatric status of the legal families of adopted hyperactive children. Archives of General Psychiatry. 1973;28:888-891.

    Not in our library10.1001/archpsyc.1973.01750360098015

65. 65.

    Najmabadi H, Hu H, Garshasbi M, Zemojtel T, Abedini SS, Chen W, Ropers HH. Deep sequencing reveals 50 novel genes for recessive cognitive disorders. Nature. 2011;478:57-63.

    Not in our library10.1038/nature10423

66. 66.

    Neale BM, Medland SE, Ripke S, Asherson P, Franke B, Lesch KP. Meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2010;49:884-897.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.jaac.2010.06.008

67. 67.

    CG72 attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): NICE guideline. 2008.

    Not in our library

68. 68.

    Nigg J. ADHD, lead exposure and prevention: How much lead or how much evidence is needed? Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics. 2008;8:519-521.

    Not in our library10.1586/14737175.8.4.519

69. 69.

    Nigg J, Lewis K, Edinger T, Falk M. Meta-analysis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms, restriction diet and synthetic food color additives. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2012;51:86-97.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.jaac.2011.10.015

70. 70.

    Nigg J, Nikolas M, Burt SA. Measured gene-by-environment interaction in relation to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2010;49:863-873.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.jaac.2010.01.025

71. 71.

    Nigg J, Nikolas M, Mark Knowttnerus G, Kavanagh K, Friderici K. Confirmation and extension of association of blood lead with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and ADHD symptom domains at population-typical exposure levels. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 2010;51:58-65.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02135.x

72. 72.

    Nikolas MA, Burt SA. Genetic and environmental influences on ADHD symptom dimensions of inattention and hyperactivity: A meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 2010;119:1-17.

    Not in our library10.1037/a0018010

73. 73.

    O’Connor TG, Rutter M. Attachment disorder behavior following early severe deprivation: Extension and longitudinal follow-up. English and Romanian Adoptees Study Team. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2000;39:703-712.

    Not in our library10.1097/00004583-200006000-00008

74. 74.

    Office for National Statistics. 2006.

    Not in our library

75. 75.

    Patterson GR, DeGarmo D, Forgatch MS. Systematic changes in families following prevention trials. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. 2004;32:621-633.

    Not in our library10.1023/b:jacp.0000047211.11826.54

76. 76.

    Pheula GF, Rohde LA, Schmitz M. Are family variables associated with ADHD, inattentive type? A case-control study in schools. European Child and Adolescent psychiatry. 2011;20:137-145.

    Not in our library10.1007/s00787-011-0158-4

77. 77.

    Rauh VA, Garfinkel R, Perera FP, Andrews HF, Hoepner L, Barr DB, Whyatt RW. Impact of prenatal chlorpyrifos exposure on neurodevelopment in the first 3 years of life among inner-city children. Pediatrics. 2006;118:e1845-e1859.

    Not in our library10.1542/peds.2006-0338

78. 78.
    Accurately Assessing the Risk of Schizophrenia Conferred by Rare Copy-Number Variation Affecting Genes with Brain Function · 2010

    No notice
79. 79.

    Rhee SH, Waldman ID. Genetic and environmental influences on antisocial behavior: A meta-analysis of twin and adoption studies. Psychological Bulletin. 2002;128:490-529.

    Not in our library

80. 80.

    Ribas-Fito N, Torrent M, Carrizo D, Julvez J, Grimalt JO, Sunyer J. Exposure to hexachlorobenzene during pregnancy and children’s social behavior at 4 years of age. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2007;115:447-450.

    Not in our library10.1289/ehp.9314

81. 81.

    Rice F, Harold G, Boivin J, van den Bree MB, Thapar A. Disentangling prenatal and inherited influences in humans with an experimental design. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences in the USA. 2009;106:2464-2467.

    Not in our library10.1073/pnas.0808798106

82. 82.

    Ronald A, Larsson H, Anckarsater H, Lichtenstein P. A twin study of autism symptoms in Sweden. Molecular Psychiatry. 2011;16:1039-1047.

    Not in our library10.1038/mp.2010.82

83. 83.

    Ronald A, Simonoff E, Kuntsi J, Asherson P, Plomin R. Evidence for overlapping genetic influences on autistic and ADHD behaviours in a community twin sample. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 2008;49:535-542.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01857.x

84. 84.

    Rutter M. Genes and behavior: Nature-nurture interplay explained. Genes, Brain, and Behavior. 2006;5:303.

    Not in our library

85. 85.

    Rutter M. Identifying the environmental causes of disease: How should we decide what to believe and when to take action? 2007.

    Not in our library

86. 86.

    Rutter M. Research review: Child psychiatric diagnosis and classification: Concepts, findings, challenges and potential. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 2011;52:647-660.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02367.x

87. 87.

    Rutter M, Beckett C, Castle J, Colvert E, Kreppner J, Mehta M, Sonuga-Barke E. Effects of profound early institutional deprivation: An overview of findings from a UK longitudinal study of Romanian adoptees. European Journal of Developmental Psychology. 2007;4:332-350.

    Not in our library

88. 88.

    Rutter M, Kreppner J, Croft C, Murin M, Colvert E, Beckett C, Sonuga-Barke E. Early adolescent outcomes of institutionally deprived and non-deprived adoptees. III. Quasi-autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 2007;48:1200-1207.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01792.x

89. 89.

    Sagiv SK, Thurston SW, Bellinger DC, Tolbert PE, Altshul LM, Korrick SA. Prenatal organochlorine exposure and behaviors associated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in school-aged children. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2010;171:593-601.

    Not in our library10.1093/aje/kwp427

90. 90.

    Scahill L, Schwab-Stone M, Merikangas KR, Leckman JF, Zhang H, Kasl S. Psychosocial and clinical correlates of ADHD in a community sample of school-age children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 1999;38:976-984.

    Not in our library10.1097/00004583-199908000-00013

91. 91.

    Schaaf CP, Wiszniewska J, Beaudet AL. Copy number and SNP arrays in clinical diagnostics. Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics. 2011;12:25-51.

    Not in our library10.1146/annurev-genom-092010-110715

92. 92.

    Schachar R, Taylor E, Wieselberg M, Thorley G, Rutter M. Changes in family function and relationships in children who respond to methylphenidate. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 1987;26:728-732.

    Not in our library10.1097/00004583-198709000-00019

93. 93.
    Effects of PCB exposure on neuropsychological function in children. · 2003

    No notice
94. 94.

    Scott S, O’Connor TG, Futh A, Matias C, Price J, Doolan M. Impact of a parenting program in a high-risk, multi-ethnic community: The PALS trial. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 2010;51:1331-1341.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02302.x

95. 95.

    Sengupta SM, Grizenko N, Schmitz N, Schwartz G, Ben Amor L, Bellingham J, Joober R. COMT Val108/158Met gene variant, birth weight, and conduct disorder in children with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2006;45:1363-1369.

    Not in our library10.1097/01.chi.0000251212.44491.46

96. 96.

    Silberg JL, Maes H, Eaves LJ. Unraveling the effect of genes and environment in the transmission of parental antisocial behavior to children’s conduct disturbance, depression and hyperactivity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 2012;53:668-677.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02494.x

97. 97.

    Sinn N. Nutritional and dietary influences on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Nutrition Reviews. 2008;66:558-568.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1753-4887.2008.00107.x

98. 98.

    Smith TF. Meta-analysis of the heterogeneity in association of DRD4 7-repeat allele and AD/HD: Stronger association with AD/HD combined type. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics. 2010;153B:1189-1199.

    Not in our library10.1002/ajmg.b.31090

99. 99.

    Spahis S, Vanasse M, Belanger SA, Ghadirian P, Grenier E, Levy E. Lipid profile, fatty acid composition and pro- and anti-oxidant status in pediatric patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Prostaglandins Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids. 2008;79:47-53.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.plefa.2008.07.005

100. 100.

     Sprich S, Biederman J, Crawford MH, Mundy E, Faraone SV. Adoptive and biological families of children and adolescents with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2000;39:1432-1437.

     Not in our library10.1097/00004583-200011000-00018

101. 101.

     St Clair D. Copy number variation and schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin. 2009;35:9-12.

     Not in our library10.1093/schbul/sbn147

102. 102.

     Stergiakouli E, Hamshere M, Holmans P, Langley K, Zaharieva I, Genetics D, Thapar A. Investigating the contribution of common genetic variants to the risk and pathogenesis of ADHD. American Journal of Psychiatry. 2012;169:186-194.

     Not in our library10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.11040551

103. 103.

     Stergiakouli E, Thapar A. Fitting the pieces together: Current research on the genetic basis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment. 2010;6:551-560.

     Not in our library10.2147/ndt.s11322

104. 104.

     Taylor E. Antecedents of ADHD: A historical account of diagnostic concepts. Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders. 2011;3:69-75.

     Not in our library10.1007/s12402-010-0051-x

105. 105.

     Taylor E, Chadwick O, Heptinstall E, Danckaerts M. Hyperactivity and conduct problems as risk factors for adolescent development. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 1996;35:1213-1226.

     Not in our library10.1097/00004583-199609000-00019

106. 106.

     Taylor E, Sonuga-Barke EJ, Rutter M, Bishop DV, Pine D, Scott S, Stevenson J, Taylor E, Thapar A. Disorders of attention and activity. Rutter’s textbook of child psychiatry. 2008;521-542.

     Not in our library

107. 107.

     Thapar A, Collishaw S, Pine DS, Thapar AK. Depression in adolescence. Lancet. 2012;379:1056-1067.

     Not in our library10.1016/s0140-6736(11)60871-4

108. 108.

     Thapar A, Harrington R, McGuffin P. Examining the comorbidity of ADHD-related behaviours and conduct problems using a twin study design. British Journal of Psychiatry. 2001;179:224-229.

     Not in our library10.1192/bjp.179.3.224

109. 109.

     Thapar A, Holmes J, Poulton K, Harrington R. Genetic basis of attention deficit and hyperactivity. British Journal of Psychiatry. 1999;174:105-111.

     Not in our library10.1192/bjp.174.2.105

110. 110.

     Thapar A, Langley K, Fowler T, Rice F, Turic D, Whittinger N, O’Donovan M. Catechol O-methyltransferase gene variant and birth weight predict early-onset antisocial behavior in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry. 2005;62:1275-1278.

     Not in our library10.1001/archpsyc.62.11.1275

111. 111.

     Thapar A, Rice F. Twin studies in pediatric depression. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 2006;15:869-881.

     Not in our library10.1016/j.chc.2006.05.007

112. 112.
     Prenatal Smoking Might Not Cause Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Evidence from a Novel Design · 2009

     No notice
113. 113.

     Thapar A, Rutter M. Do prenatal risk factors cause psychiatric disorder? Be wary of causal claims. The British Journal of Psychiatry. 2009;195:100-101.

     Not in our library10.1192/bjp.bp.109.062828

114. 114.

     Thompson MJ, Laver-Bradbury C, Ayres M, Le Poidevin E, Mead S, Dodds C, Sonuga-Barke EJ. A small-scale randomized controlled trial of the revised new forest parenting programme for preschoolers with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2009;18:605-616.

     Not in our library10.1007/s00787-009-0020-0

115. 115.

     Tully EC, Iacono WG, McGue M. An adoption study of parental depression as an environmental liability for adolescent depression and childhood disruptive disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry. 2008;165:1148-1154.

     Not in our library10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.07091438

116. 116.

     Weaver IC, Diorio J, Seckl JR, Szyf M, Meaney MJ. Early environmental regulation of hippocampal glucocorticoid receptor gene expression: Characterization of intracellular mediators and potential genomic target sites. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2004;1024:182-212.

     Not in our library10.1196/annals.1321.099

117. 117.

     Willcutt EG, Nigg J, Pennington BF, Solanto MV, Rohde LA, Tannock R, Lahey BB. Validity of DSM-IV attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptom dimensions and subtypes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 2012.

     Not in our library10.1037/a0027347

118. 118.

     Willcutt EG, Pennington BF, DeFries JC. Twin study of the etiology of comorbidity between reading disability and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. American Journal of Medical Genetics. 2000;96:293-301.

     Not in our library10.1002/1096-8628(20000612)96:3<293::aid-ajmg12>3.0.co;2-c

119. 119.

     Williams NM, Franke B, Mick E, Anney R, Freitag C, Gill M, Faraone SV. Genome-wide analysis of copy number variants in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: confirms the role of rare variants and duplications at 15q13.3. American Journal of Psychiatry. 2012;169:195-204.

     Not in our library10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.11060822

120. 120.

     Williams NM, Zaharieva I, Martin A, Langley K, Mantripragada K, Fossdal R, Thapar A. Rare chromosomal deletions and duplications in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A genome-wide analysis. Lancet. 2010;376:1401-1408.

     Not in our library10.1016/s0140-6736(10)61109-9

121. 121.

     Yang B, Chan RC, Jing J, Li T, Sham P, Chen RY. A meta-analysis of association studies between the 10-repeat allele of a VNTR polymorphism in the 3′-UTR of dopamine transporter gene and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics. 2007;144B:541-550.

     Not in our library10.1002/ajmg.b.30453

Cited by papers we hold 10

• Assessing the relationship between maternal risk for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and functional connectivity in their biological toddlers · 2022
  Not checked
• Social gradients in ADHD by household income and maternal education exposure during early childhood: Findings from birth cohort studies across six countries. · 2022
  Not checked
• Assessment of the lamina cribrosa in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder · 2021
  Not checked
• Interaction between lead and noradrenergic genotypes affects neurocognitive functions in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a case control study · 2020
  Not checked
• A Review of Heterogeneity in Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) · 2019
  No notice
• Twenty-Year Trends in Diagnosed Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Among US Children and Adolescents, 1997-2016 · 2018
  No notice
• Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder And Inflammation: What Does Current Knowledge Tell Us? A Systematic Review · 2017
  No notice
• Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in the light of the epigenetic paradigm · 2015
  Not checked
• Socioeconomic Associations with ADHD: Findings from a Mediation Analysis · 2015
  No notice
• The association of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder with socioeconomic disadvantage: alternative explanations and evidence · 2013
  No notice

Reads

A person counts once a day per paper. We keep no cookie and no address: a reader is a hash that changes every day. Any month under five reads shows no number.