d ‐Amino acid oxidase and serine racemase in human brain: normal distribution and altered expression in schizophrenia

Abstract

The N ‐methyl‐ d ‐aspartate receptor co‐agonist d ‐serine is synthesized by serine racemase and degraded by d ‐amino acid oxidase. Both d ‐serine and its metabolizing enzymes are implicated in N ‐methyl‐ d ‐aspartate receptor hypofunction thought to occur in schizophrenia. We studied d ‐amino acid oxidase and serine racemase immunohistochemically in several brain regions and compared their immunoreactivity and their mRNA levels in the cerebellum and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia. d ‐Amino acid oxidase immunoreactivity was abundant in glia, especially Bergmann glia, of the cerebellum, whereas in prefrontal cortex, hippocampus and substantia nigra, it was predominantly neuronal. Serine racemase was principally glial in all regions examined and demonstrated prominent white matter staining. In schizophrenia, d ‐amino acid oxidase mRNA was increased in the cerebellum, and as a trend for protein. Serine racemase was increased in schizophrenia in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex but not in cerebellum, while serine racemase mRNA was unchanged in both regions. Administration of haloperidol to rats did not significantly affect serine racemase or d ‐amino acid oxidase levels. These findings establish the major cell types wherein serine racemase and d ‐amino acid oxidase are expressed in human brain and provide some support for aberrant d ‐serine metabolism in schizophrenia. However, they raise further questions as to the roles of d ‐amino acid oxidase and serine racemase in both physiological and pathophysiological processes in the brain.

Shown for reading. Its publisher allows quoting it, not republishing it.

References 87

1. 1.

   Andreasen NC, Paradiso S, O'Leary DS. ‘Cognitive dysmetria’ as an integrative theory of schizophrenia: a dysfunction in cortical-subcortical-cerebellar circuitry? Schizophr. Bull. 1998;24:203-218.

   Not in our library10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a033321

2. 2.

   Arnold G, Liscum L, Holtzman E. Ultrastructural localization of d-amino acid oxidase in microperoxisomes of the rat nervous system. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 1979;27:735-745.

   Not in our library10.1177/27.3.39097

3. 3.

   Bendikov C, Nadri S, Amar R, Panizzutti J, De Miranda H, Wolosker G, Agam, I. A CSF and postmortem brain study of d-serine metabolic parameters in schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 2007;90:41-51.

   Not in our library10.1016/j.schres.2006.10.010

4. 4.

   Brannan T, Prikhojan A, Yahr MD. Elevated striatal dopamine levels following administration of D-DOPA and its alpha-keto acid metabolite DHPPA: behavioral and physiological studies in vivo in the rat. Brain Res. 1996;718:165-168.

   Not in our library10.1016/0006-8993(96)00116-3

5. 5.

   Brockhaus J, Deitmer JW. Long-lasting modulation of synaptic input to. Purkinje neurons by Bergmann glia stimulation in rat brain slices. J. Physiol. 2002;545:581-593.

   Not in our library10.1113/jphysiol.2002.028423

6. 6.

   Burnet PW, Michelson D, Smith MA, Gold PW, Sternberg EM. The effect of chronic imipramine administration on the densities of 5-HT1A and 5-HT2 receptors and the abundances of 5-HT receptor and transporter mRNA in the cortex, hippocampus and dorsal raphe of three strains of rat. Brain. Res. 1994;638:311-324.

   Not in our library10.1016/0006-8993(94)90664-5

7. 7.

   Chumakov I, Blumenfeld M, Guerassimenko O, Cavarec L, Palicio M, Abderrahim H, Bougueleret L, Barry C, Tanaka H, La Rosa P, Puech A, Tahri N, Cohen-Akenine A, Delabrosse S, Lissarrague S, Picard FP, Maurice K, Essioux L, Millasseau P, Grel P, Debailleul V, Simon AM, Caterina D, Dufaure I, Malekzadeh K, Belova M, Luan JJ, Bouillot M, Sambucy JL, Primas G, Saumier M, Boubkiri N, Martin-Saumier S, Nasroune M, Peixoto H, Delaye A, Pinchot V, Bastucci M, Guillou S, Chevillon M, Sainz-Fuertes R, Meguenni S, Aurich-Costa J, Cherif D, Gimalac A, Van Duijn C, Gauvreau D, Ouellette G, Fortier I, Raelson J, Sherbatich T, Riazanskaia N, Rogaev E, Raeymaekers P, Aerssens J, Konings F, Luyten W, Macciardi F, Sham PC, Straub RE, Weinberger DR, Cohen N, Cohen D. Genetic and physiological data implicating the new human gene G72 and the gene for d-amino acid oxidase in schizophrenia. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2002;99:13675-13680.

   Not in our library10.1073/pnas.182412499

8. 8.

   Cid ME, Ortega A. Glutamate stimulates [3H]phorbol 12,13-dibutyrate binding in cultured Bergmann glia cells. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 1993;245:51-54.

   Not in our library10.1016/0922-4106(93)90168-9

9. 9.

   Corvin A, McGhee KA, Murphy K, Donohoe G, Nangle JM, Schwaiger S, Kenny N, Clarke S, Meagher D, Quinn J, Scully P, Baldwin P, Browne D, Walsh C, Waddington JL, Morris DW, Gill M. Evidence for association and epistasis at the DAOA/G30 and d-amino acid oxidase loci in an Irish schizophrenia sample. Am. J. Med. Genet. B Neuropsychiatr. Genet. 2007.

   Not in our library10.1002/ajmg.b.30452

10. 10.

    Coyle JT. The glutamatergic dysfunction hypothesis for schizophrenia. Harv. Rev. Psychiatry. 1996;3:241-253.

    Not in our library10.3109/10673229609017192

11. 11.

    De Miranda J, Santoro A, Engelender S, Wolosker H. Human serine racemase: moleular cloning, genomic organization and functional analysis. Gene. 2000;256:183-188.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0378-1119(00)00356-5

12. 12.

    Detera-Wadleigh SD, McMahon FJ. G72/G30 in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: review and meta-analysis. Biol. Psychiatry. 2006;60:106-114.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.01.019

13. 13.

    Dumin E, Bendikov I, Foltyn VN, Misumi Y, Ikehara Y, Kartvelishvily E, Wolosker H. Modulation of d-serine levels via ubiquitin-dependent proteasomal degradation of serine racemase. J. Biol. Chem. 2006;281:20291-20302.

    Not in our library10.1074/jbc.m601971200

14. 14.

    Eastwood SL, Burnet PW, Gittins R, Baker K, Harrison PJ. Expression of serotonin 5-HT2A receptors in the human cerebellum and alterations in schizophrenia. Synapse. 2001a;42:104-114.

    Not in our library10.1002/syn.1106

15. 15.

    Eastwood SL, Cairns NJ, Harrison PJ. Synaptophysin gene expression in schizophrenia. Investigation of synaptic pathology in the cerebral cortex. Br. J. Psychiatry. 2000;176:236-242.

    Not in our library10.1192/bjp.176.3.236

16. 16.

    Eastwood SL, Cotter D, Harrison PJ. Cerebellar synaptic protein expression in schizophrenia. Neuroscience. 2001b;105:219-229.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0306-4522(01)00141-5

17. 17.

    Eastwood SL, Law AJ, Everall IP, Harrison PJ. The axonal chemorepellant semaphorin 3A is increased in the cerebellum in schizophrenia and may contribute to its synaptic pathology. Mol. Psychiatry. 2003;8:148-155.

    Not in our library10.1038/sj.mp.4001233

18. 18.

    Foltyn VN, Bendikov I, De Miranda J, Panizzutti R, Dumin E, Shleper M, Li P, Toney MD, Kartvelishvily E, Wolosker H. Serine racemase modulates intracellular d-serine levels through an alpha,beta-elimination activity. J. Biol. Chem. 2005;280:1754-1763.

    Not in our library10.1074/jbc.m405726200

19. 19.

    Gavazzi E, Malgaretti N, Curti B. Immunochemical properties of d-amino- acid oxidase. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1987;915:188-198.

    Not in our library10.1016/0167-4838(87)90299-8

20. 20.

    Goltsov AY, Loseva JG, Andreeva TV, Grigorenko AP, Abramova LI, Kaleda VG, Orlova VA, Moliaka YK, Rogaev EI. Polymorphism in the 5′-promoter region of serine racemase gene in schizophrenia. Mol. Psychiatry. 2006;11:325-326.

    Not in our library10.1038/sj.mp.4001801

21. 21.

    Hamase K, Homma H, Takigawa Y, Fukushima T, Santa T, Imai K. Regional distribution and postnatal changes of d-amino acids in rat brain. Biochem. Biophys. Acta. 1997;1334:214-222.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0304-4165(96)00095-5

22. 22.

    Harrison PJ, Owen MJ. Genes for schizophrenia? Recent findings and their pathophysiological implications. Lancet. 2003;361:417-419.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0140-6736(03)12379-3

23. 23.

    Harrison PJ, Weinberger DR. Schizophrenia genes, gene expression, and neuropathology: on the matter of their convergence. Mol. Psychiatry. 2005;10:40-68.

    Not in our library10.1038/sj.mp.4001558

24. 24.

    Hashimoto A. Effect of the intracerebroventricular and systemic administration of L-serine on the concentrations of D- and L-serine in several brain areas and periphery of rat. Brain Res. 2002;955:214-220.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0006-8993(02)03466-2

25. 25.

    Hashimoto K, Fukushima T, Shimizu E, Komatsu N, Watanabe H, Shinoda N, Nakazato M, Kumakiri C, Okada S, Hasegawa H, Imai K, Iyo M. Decreased serum levels of d-serine in patients with schizophrenia: evidence in support of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor hypofunction hypothesis of schizophrenia. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 2003;60:572-576.

    Not in our library10.1001/archpsyc.60.6.572

26. 26.

    Hashimoto K, Engberg G, Shimizu E, Nordin C, Lindstrom LH, Iyo M. Reduced d-serine to total serine ratio in the cerebrospinal fluid of drug naive schizophrenic patients. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry. 2005;29:767-769.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.pnpbp.2005.04.023

27. 27.

    Hashimoto A, Oka T, Nishikawa T. Anatomical distribution and postnatal changes in endogenous free d-aspartate and d-serine in rat brain and periphery. Eur. J. Neurosci. 1995a;7:1657-1663.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1460-9568.1995.tb00687.x

28. 28.

    Hashimoto A, Oka T, Nishikawa T. Extracellular concentration of endogenous free d-serine in the rat brain as revealed by in vivo microdialysis. Neuroscience. 1995b;66:635-643.

    Not in our library10.1016/0306-4522(94)00597-x

29. 29.

    Helboe L, Egebjerg J, Moller M, Thomsen C. Distribution and pharmacology of alanine-serine-cysteine transporter 1 (asc-1) in rodent brain. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2003;18:2227-2238.

    Not in our library10.1046/j.1460-9568.2003.02966.x

30. 30.

    Heresco-Levy U, Javitt DC, Ebstein R, Vass A, Lichtenberg P, Bar G, Catinari S, Ermilov M. d-serine efficacy as add-on pharmacotherapy to risperidone and olanzapine for treatment-refractory schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry. 2005;57:577-585.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.12.037

31. 31.

    Horiike K, Tojo H, Arai R, Nozaki M, Maeda T. d-amino-acid oxidase is confined to the lower brain stem and cerebellum in rat brain: regional differentiation of astrocytes. Brain Res. 1994;652:297-303.

    Not in our library10.1016/0006-8993(94)90240-2

32. 32.

    Horiike K, Tojo H, Arai R, Yamano T, Nozaki M, Maeda T. Localization of d-amino acid oxidase in Bergmann glial cells and astrocytes of rat cerebellum. Brain Res. Bull. 1987;19:587-596.

    Not in our library10.1016/0361-9230(87)90076-1

33. 33.

    Huang H, Bordey A. Glial glutamate transporters limit spillover activation of presynaptic NMDA receptors and influence synaptic inhibition of Purkinje neurons. J. Neurosci. 2004;24:5659-5669.

    Not in our library10.1523/jneurosci.1338-04.2004

34. 34.

    Ito K, Hicks TP. Effect of the glycine modulatory site of the N-methyl-D- aspartate receptor on synaptic responses in kitten visual cortex. Neurosci. Lett. 2001;303:95-98.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0304-3940(01)01709-8

35. 35.

    Kapoor R, Lim KS, Cheng A, Garrick T, Kapoor V. Preliminary evidence for a link between schizophrenia and NMDA-glycine site receptor ligand metabolic enzymes, D-amino acid oxidase (DAO) and kynurenine aminotransferase-1 (KAT-1). Brain Res. 2006;1106:205-210.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.brainres.2006.05.082

36. 36.

    Kartvelishvily E, Shleper M, Balan L, Dumin E, Wolosker H. Neuron- derived d-serine release provides a novel means to activate N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors. J. Biol. Chem. 2006;281:14151-14162.

    Not in our library10.1074/jbc.m512927200

37. 37.

    Katagiri M, Tojo H, Horiike K, Yamano T. Immunochemical relationship of d-amino acid oxidases in various tissues and animals. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. B. 1991;99:345-350.

    Not in our library10.1016/0305-0491(91)90053-g

38. 38.

    Katsetos CD, Hyde TM, Herman M. Neuropathology of the cerebellum in schizophrenia—An update: 1996 and future directions. Biol. Psychiatry. 1997;42:213-224.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0006-3223(96)00313-7

39. 39.

    Kawazoe T, Tsuge H, Imagawa T, Aki K, Kuramitsu S, Fukui K. Structural basis of D-DOPA oxidation by D-amino acid oxidase: alternative pathway for dopamine biosynthesis. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2007;355:385-391.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.bbrc.2007.01.181

40. 40.

    Konarski JZ, McIntyre RS, Grupp LA, Kennedy SH. Is the cerebellum relevant in the circuitry of neuropsychiatric disorders? J. Psychiatry Neurosci. 2005;30:178-186.

    Not in our library

41. 41.

    Korostishevsky M, Kaganovich M, Cholostoy A, Ashkenazi M, Ratner Y, Dahary D, Bernstein J, Bening-Abu-Shach U, Ben-Asher E, Lancet D, Ritsner M, Navon R. Is the G72/G30 locus associated with schizophrenia? single nucleotide polymorphisms, haplotypes, and gene expression analysis. Biol. Psychiatry. 2004;56:169-176.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.04.006

42. 42.

    Kumashiro S, Hashimoto A, Nishikawa T. Free d-serine in post-mortem brains and spinal cords of individuals with and without neuropsychiatric diseases. Brain Res. 1995;681:117-125.

    Not in our library10.1016/0006-8993(95)00307-c

43. 43.

    Laruelle M, Kegeles LS, Abi-Dargham A. Glutamate, dopamine, and schizophrenia: from pathophysiology to treatment. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 2003;1003:138-158.

    Not in our library10.1196/annals.1300.063

44. 44.

    Law AJ, Hutchinson LJ, Burnet PW, Harrison PJ. Antipsychotics increase microtubule-associated protein 2 mRNA but not spinophilin mRNA in rat hippocampus and cortex. J. Neurosci. Res. 2004;76:376-382.

    Not in our library10.1002/jnr.20092

45. 45.

    Law AJ, Kleinman JE, Weinberger DR, Weickert CS. Disease-associated intronic variants in the ErbB4 gene are related to altered ErbB4 splice-variant expression in the brain in schizophrenia. Hum. Mol. Genet. 2007;16:129-141.

    Not in our library10.1093/hmg/ddl449

46. 46.

    Law AJ, Lipska BK, Weickert CS, Hyde TM, Straub R, Hashimoto R, Harrison PJ, Kleinman JE, Weinberger DR. Neuregulin 1 transcripts are differentially expressed in schizophrenia and regulated by 5′-SNPs associated with the disease. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA. 2006;103:6747-6752.

    Not in our library10.1073/pnas.0602002103

47. 47.

    Li D, He L. G72/G30 genes and schizophrenia: a systematic meta-analysis of association studies. Genetics. 2007;175:917-922.

    Not in our library10.1534/genetics.106.061796

48. 48.

    Liu YL, Fann CS, Liu CM, Chang CC, Wu JY, Hung SI, Liu SK, Hsieh MH, Hwang TJ, Chan HY, Chen JJ, Faraone SV, Tsuang MT, Chen WJ, Hwu HG. No association of G72 and d-amino acid oxidase genes with schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 2006;87:15-20.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.schres.2006.06.020

49. 49.

    Liu X, He G, Wang X, Chen Q, Qian X, Lin W, Li D, Gu N, Feng G, He L. Association of DAO with schizophrenia in the Chinese population. Neurosci. Lett. 2004;369:228-233.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.neulet.2004.07.078

50. 50.

    Matsuo H, Kanai Y, Tokunaga M, Nakata T, Chairoungdua A, Ishimine H, Tsukada S, Ooigawa H, Nawashiro H, Kobayashi Y, Fukuda J, Endou H. High affinity – and – serine transporter Asc-1: cloning and dendritic localization in the rat cerebral and cerebellar cortices. Neurosci. Lett. 2004;358:123-126.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.neulet.2004.01.014

51. 51.

    Moghaddam B. Bringing order to the glutamate chaos in schizophrenia. Neuron. 2003;40:881-884.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0896-6273(03)00757-8

52. 52.

    Moreno S, Nardacci R, Cimini A, Ceru MP. Immunocytochemical localization of d-amino acid oxidase in rat brain. J. Neurocytol. 1999;28:169-185.

    Not in our library10.1023/a:1007064504007

53. 53.

    Morikawa A, Hamase K, Inoue T, Konno R, Niwa A, Zaitsu K. Determination of free d-aspartic acid, d-serine and d-alanine in the brain of mutant mice lacking d-amino acid oxidase activity. J. Chromatogr. B Biomed. Sci. Appl. 2001;757:119-125.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0378-4347(01)00131-1

54. 54.

    Morita Y, Ujike H, Tanaka Y, Otani K, Kishimoto M, Morio A, Kotaka T, Okahisa Y, Matsushita M, Morikawa A, Hamase K, Zaitsu K, Kuroda S. A genetic variant of the serine racemase gene is associated with schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry. 2007;61:1200-1203.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.07.025

55. 55.

    Moses J, Siddiqui A, Silverman PB. Sodium benzoate differentially blocks circling induced by d-and l-dopa in the hemi-parkinsonian rat. Neurosci. Lett. 1996;218:145-148.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0304-3940(96)13131-1

56. 56.
    d-Serine is an endogenous ligand for the glycine site of the N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor · 2000

    Not checked
57. 57.

    Nagata Y, Horiike K, Maeda T. Distribution of free d-serine in vertebrate brains. Brain Res. 1994;634:291-295.

    Not in our library10.1016/0006-8993(94)91932-1

58. 58.

    Olney JW, Farber NB. Glutamate receptor dysfunction and schizophrenia. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 1995;52:998-1007.

    Not in our library10.1001/archpsyc.1995.03950240016004

59. 59.

    Pollegioni L, Piubelli L, Sacchi S, Pilone MS, Molla G. Physiological functions of d-amino acid oxidases: from yeast to humans. Cell Mol. Life Sci. 2007;64:1373-1394.

    Not in our library10.1007/s00018-007-6558-4

60. 60.

    Rutter R, Fradley R, Garrett E, Chapman K, Lawrence J, Rosahl T, Patel S. Evidence from gene knockout studies implicates Asc-1 as the primary transporter mediating d-serine reuptake in the mouse CNS. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2007;25:1757-1766.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1460-9568.2007.05446.x

61. 61.

    Schell MJ, Brady RO, Molliver ME, Snyder SH. d-serine as a neuromodulator: regional and developmental localizations in rat brain glia resemble NMDA receptors. J. Neurosci. 1997;17:1604-1615.

    Not in our library10.1523/jneurosci.17-05-01604.1997

62. 62.

    Schell MJ, Molliver ME, Snyder SH. d-serine, an endogenous synaptic modulator: localization to astrocytes and glutamate-stimulated release. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 1995;92:3948-3952.

    Not in our library10.1073/pnas.92.9.3948

63. 63.

    Schumacher J, Jamra RA, Freudenberg J, Becker T, Ohlraun S, Otte AC, Tullius M, Kovalenko S, Bogaert AV, Maier W, Rietschel M, Propping P, Nothen MM, Cichon S. Examination of G72 and d-amino-acid oxidase as genetic risk factors for schizophrenia and bipolar affective disorder. Mol. Psychiatry. 2004;9:203-207.

    Not in our library10.1038/sj.mp.4001421

64. 64.

    Shleper M, Kartvelishvily E, Wolosker H. d-serine is the dominant endogenous coagonist for NMDA receptor neurotoxicity in organotypic hippocampal slices. J. Neurosci. 2005;25:9413-9417.

    Not in our library10.1523/jneurosci.3190-05.2005

65. 65.

    Steffek AE, Haroutunian V, Meador-Woodruff JH. Serine racemase protein expression in cortex and hippocampus in schizophrenia. Neuroreport. 2006;17:1181-1185.

    Not in our library10.1097/01.wnr.0000230512.01339.72

66. 66.

    Strisovsky K, Jiraskova J, Mikulova A, Rulisek L, Konvalinka J. Dual substrate and reaction specificity in mouse serine racemase: identification of high-affinity dicarboxylate substrate and inhibitors and analysis of the beta-eliminase activity. Biochemistry. 2005;44:13091-13100.

    Not in our library10.1021/bi051201o

67. 67.

    Strohmaier J, Georgi A, Schirmbeck F, Schmael C, Jamra RA, Schumacher J, Becker T, Hofels S, Klopp N, Illig T, Propping P, Cichon S, Nothen MM, Rietschel M, Schulze TG. No association between the serine racemase gene (SRR) and schizophrenia in a German case-control sample. Psychiatr. Genet. 2007;17:125-129.

    Not in our library10.1097/ypg.0b013e3280143e43

68. 68.

    Thiels E, Weisz DJ, Berger TW. In vivo modulation of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor-dependent long-term potentiation by the glycine modulatory site. Neuroscience. 1992;46:501-509.

    Not in our library10.1016/0306-4522(92)90139-s

69. 69.

    Tsai G, Yang P, Chung LC, Lange N, Coyle JT. d-serine added to antipsychotics for the treatment of schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry. 1998;44:1081-1089.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0006-3223(98)00279-0

70. 70.

    Vilella E, Costas J, Sanjuan J, Guitart M, De Diego Y, Carracedo A, Martorell L, Valero J, Labad A, De Frutos R, Najera C, Molto MD, Toirac I, Guillamat R, Brunet A, Valles V, Perez L, Leon M, de Fonseca FR, Phillips C, Torres M. Association of schizophrenia with DTNBP1 but not with DAO, DAOA, NRG1 and RGS4 nor their genetic interaction. J. Psychiatr. Res. 2007.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.jpsychires.2007.02.005

71. 71.

    Wang LZ, Zhu XZ. Spatiotemporal relationships among d-serine, serine racemase, and d-amino acid oxidase during mouse postnatal development. Acta Pharmacol. Sin. 2003;24:965-974.

    Not in our library

72. 72.

    Williams SM, Diaz CM, Macnab LT, Sullivan RK, Pow DV. Immunocytochemical analysis of d-serine distribution in the mammalian brain reveals novel anatomical compartmentalizations in glia and neurons. Glia. 2006;53:401-411.

    Not in our library10.1002/glia.20300

73. 73.

    Wolosker H, Blackshaw S, Snyder SH. Serine racemase: a glial enzyme synthesizing d-serine to regulate glutamate-N-methyl-D-aspartate neurotransmission. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA. 1999a;96:13409-13414.

    Not in our library10.1073/pnas.96.23.13409

74. 74.
    Purification of serine racemase: Biosynthesis of the neuromodulator d-serine · 1999

    Not checked
75. 75.

    Wood LS, Pickering EH, Dechairo BM. Significant support for DAO as a schizophrenia susceptibility locus: examination of five genes putatively associated with schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry. 2007;61:1195-1199.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.07.005

76. 76.

    Wu S, Barger SW. Induction of serine racemase by inflammatory stimuli is dependent on AP-1. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 2004;1035:133-146.

    Not in our library10.1196/annals.1332.009

77. 77.

    Wu M, Zhou XJ, Konno R, Wang YX. d-dopa is unidirectionally converted to l-dopa by d-amino acid oxidase, followed by dopa transaminase. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 2006;33:1042-1046.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1440-1681.2006.04484.x

78. 78.

    Xia M, Liu Y, Figueroa DJ, Chiu CS, Wei N, Lawlor AM, Lu P, Sur C, Koblan KS, Connolly TM. Characterization and localization of a human serine racemase. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res. 2004;125:96-104.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.molbrainres.2004.03.007

79. 79.

    Yagi K, Nagatsu T, Ozawa T. Inhibitory action of chlorpromazine on the oxidation of d-amino-acid in the diencephalon part of the brain. Nature. 1956;177:891-892.

    Not in our library10.1038/177891a0

80. 80.

    Yamada K, Ohnishi T, Hashimoto K, Ohba H, Iwayama-Shigeno Y, Toyoshima M, Okuno A, Takao H, Toyota T, Minabe Y, Nakamura K, Shimizu E, Itokawa M, Mori N, Iyo M, Yoshikawa T. Identification of multiple serine racemase (SRR) mRNA isoforms and genetic analyses of SRR and DAO in schizophrenia and d-serine levels. Biol. Psychiatry. 2005;57:1493-1503.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.03.018

81. 81.

    Yang Y, Ge W, Chen Y, Zhang Z, Shen W, Wu C, Poo M, Duan S. Contribution of astrocytes to hippocampal long-term potentiation through release of d-serine. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA. 2003;100:15194-15199.

    Not in our library10.1073/pnas.2431073100

82. 82.

    Yasuda E, Ma N, Semba R. Immunohistochemical evidences for localization and production of d-serine in some neurons in the rat brain. Neurosci. Lett. 2001;299:162-164.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0304-3940(01)01502-6

83. 83.

    Yoshikawa M, Kobayashi T, Oka T, Kawaguchi M, Hashimoto A. Distribution and MK-801-induced expression of serine racemase mRNA in rat brain by real-time quantitative PCR. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res. 2004a;128:90-94.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.molbrainres.2004.06.015

84. 84.

    Yoshikawa M, Nakajima K, Takayasu N, Noda S, Sato Y, Kawaguchi M, Oka T, Kobayashi H, Hashimoto A. Expression of the mRNA and protein of serine racemase in primary cultures of rat neurons. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 2006;548:74-76.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ejphar.2006.07.029

85. 85.

    Yoshikawa M, Oka T, Kawaguchi M, Hashimoto A. MK-801 upregulates the expression of d-amino acid oxidase mRNA in rat brain. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res. 2004b;131:141-144.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.molbrainres.2004.08.017

86. 86.

    Yue W, Kang G, Zhang Y, Qu M, Tang F, Han Y, Ruan Y, Lu T, Zhang J, Zhang D. Association of DAOA polymorphisms with schizophrenia and clinical symptoms or therapeutic effects. Neurosci. Lett. 2007;416:96-100.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.neulet.2007.01.056

87. 87.

    Zaar K, Kost HP, Schad A, Volkl A, Baumgart E, Fahimi HD. Cellular and subcellular distribution of d-aspartate oxidase in human and rat brain. J. Comp. Neurol. 2002;450:272-282.

    Not in our library10.1002/cne.10320

Cited by papers we hold 1

• Peroxisomes in brain development and function · 2016
  No notice

Reads

A person counts once a day per paper. We keep no cookie and no address: a reader is a hash that changes every day. Any month under five reads shows no number.