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Refractiveindex.info database of optical constants

Mikhail N. Polyanskiy

Scientific Data · 2024 · CC BY

Abstract

We introduce the refractiveindex.info database, a comprehensive open-source repository containing optical constants for a wide array of materials, and describe in detail the underlying dataset. This collection, derived from a meticulous compilation of data sourced from peer-reviewed publications, manufacturers’ datasheets, and authoritative texts, aims to advance research in optics and photonics. The data is stored using a YAML-based format, ensuring integrity, consistency, and ease of access. Each record is accompanied by detailed metadata, facilitating a comprehensive understanding and efficient utilization of the data. In this descriptor, we outline the data curation protocols and the file format used for data records, and briefly demonstrate how the data can be organized in a user-friendly fashion akin to the books in a traditional library.

Full text

From PubMed Central, U.S. National Library of Medicine, as current on Oct 22, 2026. Paragraph numbers are ours, so an answer can point at one.

Background & summary

1The complex index of refraction is essential for understanding the optical properties of materials due to its close relation with the relative permittivity εr ( in the case of non-magnetic materials). In this context, n is the phase velocity ratio of light in a vacuum to that in the material, representing refraction. The extinction coefficient k measures absorption. The absorption coefficient α can be expressed as, with λ representing the light’s wavelength.

2Accurately determining both n and k, and their chromatic dispersion, is crucial in science, engineering, and 3D artistic rendering. The intricate design of optical instruments, particularly those minimizing aberrations, depends heavily on understanding the n(λ) function of transparent optical materials. Cross-disciplinary efforts to characterize optical material properties have resulted in a wealth of datasets and analytical formulas, enhancing our grasp and utilization of optical constants.

3Initiatives to amalgamate scattered information on optical constants resulted in seminal works like Palik’s comprehensive compilation, offering structured and uniformly formatted data. Though monumental, the rapid advancement of technology and research methodologies signposted the need for a more dynamic, easily accessible repository of n and k values. This need intensified with the emergence of high-peak-power lasers, highlighting the critical role of the nonlinear refractive index, n2, in decoding material behavior under intense light. n2 characterizes the refractive index’s variation with the optical field intensity I, expressed as n = n0 + n2I, where n0 is the refractive index at zero intensity.

4The refractiveindex.info database emerged in response, offering a systematically organized, dynamic repository of optical constants. Since its inception in 2008, continuous enhancements have established it as a reliable resource, with the YAML-based file format ensuring data integrity and ease of access. The integration of the n2 database in 2023 reaffirms our dedication to addressing modern challenges in optics and photonics.

5The subsequent sections delve into the methods employed for collecting the data included in refractiveindex.info, detailing the file format used for storing data records and our approach to verifying dataset integrity. We then highlight the application aspects of this dataset, illustrated with an example of an interactive data browser, and conclude with a statement on data availability.

Data source clarification

6It is pivotal to underscore that our work does not generate original experimental data. Instead, we create a comprehensive data repository, systematizing and cataloging existing optical constants published by others. This approach ensures a diverse and rich collection of verified data is readily accessible for various applications in a standardized format. As a result, this section does not describe experimental procedures but focuses on the methodologies employed in data collection and formatting.

Data collection

7Data on the optical properties of materials is aggregated from a variety of publicly accessible and credible sources, ensuring a wide range of optical constants is represented. The systematic collection process involves categorizing the data based on the type of material, its properties, and the source of information. The entire process is mostly manual due to the large variety of data sources and presentation methods. Below, we detail the steps typically undertaken to identify sources, extract data, and convert it into a unified format used in the data records.Identification of data sourcesExisting data collections: The initial sources for literature containing data on optical constants were published collections, such as those included in the Handbook of Optics. The publications referenced therein constituted our initial list of data sources.Cross-references from the initial list of data sources: In the next iteration, we scan for references to other publications in the sources identified in the previous step (usually, scientific papers reporting new measurements describe previous works on similar topics).Search engines: We perform a broader search for publications on optical properties of materials using tools like Google Scholar to find newer references and those that may have been missed in earlier steps.Glass makers’ catalogs: We checked the websites of glass manufacturers for catalogs of glasses they produce. These catalogs are often available in Zemax AGF format, suitable for automatic data extraction.User input: At the present maturity level of the project, most new data sources are recommended by users. Researchers often provide us with data in a format ready-to-include in the refractiveindex.info dataset as soon as the data are first published.Data extractionDispersion formula: When the linear refractive index as a function of wavelength is given as a dispersion formula, the coefficients are manually transferred to the data record. Adjustments are made if necessary to fit the formula to one of the standard forms documented in the following section.Tabulated numerical data: In cases where optical constants are presented in tabulated numerical form, the data are transferred to the data record with minimal changes required by the used format (e.g., using micrometer as the unit of wavelength and expressing internal absorption by extinction coefficient k). This process is simplified if data is in a standard table format (e.g., CSV or Microsoft Excel) in supplementary materials or directly provided by authors. For older publications, typically available as bitmap-based PDF files, text recognition options in PDF reading software prove helpful.Models: If a reference presents a model for calculating optical constants, a Python script is developed to generate a tabulated data record compatible with the required format. This script is then made publicly available to refractiveindex.info users on GitHub.Graphical-only data: Occasionally, authors choose to include only graphical data in publications without numerical data. In such cases, we first attempt to contact the authors for the original data. If this is not feasible (in the case of older publications) or if there is no response, semi-automatic digitization of the plots is sometimes performed (e.g., using Engauge Digitizer software); however, this is considered a last resort due to its time-consuming and less accurate nature and is typically used only when no alternative data is available.Glass catalogs: Glass makers’ catalogs in AGF format are automatically converted into refractiveindex.info data records using a dedicated Python script.

8Identification of data sources

9Existing data collections: The initial sources for literature containing data on optical constants were published collections, such as those included in the Handbook of Optics. The publications referenced therein constituted our initial list of data sources.

10Cross-references from the initial list of data sources: In the next iteration, we scan for references to other publications in the sources identified in the previous step (usually, scientific papers reporting new measurements describe previous works on similar topics).

11Search engines: We perform a broader search for publications on optical properties of materials using tools like Google Scholar to find newer references and those that may have been missed in earlier steps.

12Glass makers’ catalogs: We checked the websites of glass manufacturers for catalogs of glasses they produce. These catalogs are often available in Zemax AGF format, suitable for automatic data extraction.

13User input: At the present maturity level of the project, most new data sources are recommended by users. Researchers often provide us with data in a format ready-to-include in the refractiveindex.info dataset as soon as the data are first published.

14Data extraction

15Dispersion formula: When the linear refractive index as a function of wavelength is given as a dispersion formula, the coefficients are manually transferred to the data record. Adjustments are made if necessary to fit the formula to one of the standard forms documented in the following section.

16Tabulated numerical data: In cases where optical constants are presented in tabulated numerical form, the data are transferred to the data record with minimal changes required by the used format (e.g., using micrometer as the unit of wavelength and expressing internal absorption by extinction coefficient k). This process is simplified if data is in a standard table format (e.g., CSV or Microsoft Excel) in supplementary materials or directly provided by authors. For older publications, typically available as bitmap-based PDF files, text recognition options in PDF reading software prove helpful.

17Models: If a reference presents a model for calculating optical constants, a Python script is developed to generate a tabulated data record compatible with the required format. This script is then made publicly available to refractiveindex.info users on GitHub.

18Graphical-only data: Occasionally, authors choose to include only graphical data in publications without numerical data. In such cases, we first attempt to contact the authors for the original data. If this is not feasible (in the case of older publications) or if there is no response, semi-automatic digitization of the plots is sometimes performed (e.g., using Engauge Digitizer software); however, this is considered a last resort due to its time-consuming and less accurate nature and is typically used only when no alternative data is available.

19Glass catalogs: Glass makers’ catalogs in AGF format are automatically converted into refractiveindex.info data records using a dedicated Python script.

Data formatting and updates

20All collected data are converted into a standardized format stored in human-readable YAML files, as detailed in the following section. This approach ensures consistency and facilitates easy access and manipulation by both users and computer programs.

21Errors in converting original data to standardized data records occasionally occur and are typically reported by users. All efforts are made to implement necessary corrections promptly via regular updates of the dataset.

Data Records

22The dataset is available at Figshare.

YAML-based file format for data records

23The data records employ YAML-based file format (https://yaml.org), ensuring the data is both easily readable and maintainable. Each YAML file encompasses data related to a specific material, evaluated under defined conditions and reported in a particular publication, with a primary focus on the refractive index and extinction coefficient.

24As an illustrative example, consider a data record for SiO2 in which the refractive index n is expressed through a dispersion formula. The associated YAML file is located at data-nk/main/SiO2/Malitson.yml and is organized as follows:

25REFERENCES: “1) I. H. Malitson, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 55, 1205-1209 (1965)...

26COMMENTS: “Fused silica, 20 °C”DATA:– type: formula 1wavelength_range: 0.21 6.7coefficients: 0 0.6961663 0.0684043 0.4079426...SPECS:n_is_absolute: falsewavelength_is_vacuum: false

27temperature: 20 °C

28Every YAML data file primarily consists of two mandatory fields: REFERENCES and DATA. REFERENCES cite the source of the data, while DATA provides the values of the optical constants. There are also two optional fields, COMMENTS and SPECS, offering additional context and structured information respectively.

DATA

29In the case of a data record for linear optical constants, the DATA field can be specified as a dispersion formula, identified by a formula number, or as tabulated data sets of n(λ) and/or k(λ). For dispersion formulas, the ‘wavelength_range’ entry indicates the applicable wavelength range for the data, always expressed in micrometers. Each dispersion formula in the database is numerically identified and described as follows:

30In another example, found at data-nk/main/Si/Aspnes.yml, n(λ) and k(λ) for Silicon (Si) are provided in tabulated numerical form:

31DATA:- type: tabulated nkdata: |0.2066 1.010 2.9090.2101 1.083 2.982...

32Here, the first column corresponds to the wavelength in micrometers, while the others represent the unitless refractive index n and extinction coefficient k. Alternatively, n and k can be outlined separately in two two-column entries. A data entry might also combine a dispersion formula for n with numerical data for k, as illustrated in the SCHOTT N-BK7 glass dataset at data-nk/glass/schott/N-BK7.yml:

33DATA:- type: formula 2wavelength_range: 0.3 2.5coefficients: 0 1.03961212 0.00600069867 0.231792344...- type: tabulated kdata: |0.300 2.8607E-060.310 1.3679E-060.320 6.6608E-07...

34In n2 datasets, the data are always presented numerically. An example can be found at data-n2/main/SiO2/Flom.yml. n2 is expressed in m2/W:

35DATA:- type: tabulated n2data: |0.772 2.07e-201.030 2.23e-201.550 2.42e-20SPECS:n2_method: Z-scanpulse_duration: 280e-15 140e-15 97e-15

36It is noteworthy that for n2, information on the measurement method and pulse duration is essential for comparing data from different sources. This information is specified in the optional SPECS field.

COMMENTS and SPECS

37The COMMENTS field can incorporate additional information to provide context to the data, while the SPECS field presents structured data in key-value pairs, giving machine-interpretable insights into specific measurement conditions or additional properties.

38In the initial example, the SPECS entries clarify that the refractive index is not absolute and is measured relative to air, that the wavelength is gauged under atmospheric conditions rather than in vacuum, and that the data is applicable at a temperature of 20 °C. In the preceding example concerning n2, the SPECS delineate the use of the Z-scan measurement method, specifying pulse durations of 280 fs, 140 fs, and 97 fs for the corresponding data points. Furthermore, the SPECS section is adaptable to encapsulate an enhanced depth of information regarding the material, as illustrated in the forthcoming example for SCHOTT N-BK7 glass:

39SPECS:...thermal_dispersion:- type: “Schott formula”coefficients: 1.86e-06 1.31e-08 −1.37e-11 4.34e-07 6.27e-10 0.17nd: 1.5168Vd: 64.17glass_code: 517642.251glass_status: standard...acid_resistance: 1.0alkali_resistance: 2.3phosphate_resistance: 2.3

40Inclusion of additional information on optical glasses makes the data records suitable for use in optical design software.

Notes on data records

41Adhering strictly to the syntactical rules of YAML is paramount. This adherence includes the mandatory use of spaces for indentation (tabs are prohibited) and the application of UTF-8 encoding without BOM, ensuring consistency and readability across diverse data records. While not a stringent requirement, a uniform format for similar entries, particularly references, is encouraged to optimize the user experience and enhance data interpretability.

42Unless explicitly defined, non-prefixed SI units (e.g., watts, meters, seconds) are the default to ensure unambiguous and standardized data representation and interpretation. For instance, n2 is expressed in units of m2/W. However, an exception exists for the wavelength, which is always specified in micrometers to comply with a general practice accepted in optical design and, in particular, to allow the direct use of published dispersion formulas that traditionally assume wavelength expressed in micrometers.

Technical Validation

43Since the described dataset represents an extensive array of data compiled by the work of thousands of researchers over more than a century, we cannot verify the accuracy of every individual record. Instead, we rely on the peer-review process employed by publishers of scientific and technical journals, and on the experience and reputation of optical material manufacturers publishing their material properties. However, we make every effort to ensure the correctness of the data extraction and conversion process, as well as the consistency of the information included in the dataset. In particular, the following steps are typically involved in the process of adding a new data record.Verification and documentation of data attribution: We trace the origin of the data to the first publication where it appeared and include the corresponding information in the data record file, ensuring users can validate the origins of the data. If the original data were re-analyzed, or a combination of data from multiple sources was used in a later publication (for example, to produce a dispersion formula valid in an extended wavelength range), this fact is also documented in the REFERENCES field of the data record file.Verification of accuracy of data extraction: Several tests are used to ensure the absence of errors in the conversion process:Manual number-by-number comparison: This test is routinely performed when the data is represented by a relatively small amount of numerical values, e.g., coefficients of a dispersion formula.Plot comparison: We use Python scripts that automatically read YAML data record files and plot the included optical constants as a function of wavelength. Comparing these plots with those included in the original publications is a robust tool for spotting inconsistencies.Looking for data abnormalities: A deviation of a data point from the general trend in the data record is usually an indication of a data extraction error. All such abnormalities are manually compared against the original data, and necessary corrections are made.Cross-entry comparison: Plotting data entries for the same material from different sources on the same plot may help reveal a systematic error in a particular data record if a corresponding curve deviates from a general trend. An example of a Python-based user interface allowing for easy data comparison is given in the following section.Testing of data file adherence to the YAML standard: This is typically performed by verifying the as-expected operation of several scripts used to access the data and relying on standardized YAML processing libraries. Error or warning messages generated by these scripts indicate a problem in the data record file that must be identified and corrected.User feedback: This is our strongest defense line in assuring the integrity of the data records. The users report errors via the GitHub page of the refractiveindex.info project or by directly contacting the maintainer. Each report is analyzed, and necessary corrections are promptly implemented.

44Verification and documentation of data attribution: We trace the origin of the data to the first publication where it appeared and include the corresponding information in the data record file, ensuring users can validate the origins of the data. If the original data were re-analyzed, or a combination of data from multiple sources was used in a later publication (for example, to produce a dispersion formula valid in an extended wavelength range), this fact is also documented in the REFERENCES field of the data record file.

45Verification of accuracy of data extraction: Several tests are used to ensure the absence of errors in the conversion process:Manual number-by-number comparison: This test is routinely performed when the data is represented by a relatively small amount of numerical values, e.g., coefficients of a dispersion formula.Plot comparison: We use Python scripts that automatically read YAML data record files and plot the included optical constants as a function of wavelength. Comparing these plots with those included in the original publications is a robust tool for spotting inconsistencies.Looking for data abnormalities: A deviation of a data point from the general trend in the data record is usually an indication of a data extraction error. All such abnormalities are manually compared against the original data, and necessary corrections are made.Cross-entry comparison: Plotting data entries for the same material from different sources on the same plot may help reveal a systematic error in a particular data record if a corresponding curve deviates from a general trend. An example of a Python-based user interface allowing for easy data comparison is given in the following section.

46Manual number-by-number comparison: This test is routinely performed when the data is represented by a relatively small amount of numerical values, e.g., coefficients of a dispersion formula.

47Plot comparison: We use Python scripts that automatically read YAML data record files and plot the included optical constants as a function of wavelength. Comparing these plots with those included in the original publications is a robust tool for spotting inconsistencies.

48Looking for data abnormalities: A deviation of a data point from the general trend in the data record is usually an indication of a data extraction error. All such abnormalities are manually compared against the original data, and necessary corrections are made.

49Cross-entry comparison: Plotting data entries for the same material from different sources on the same plot may help reveal a systematic error in a particular data record if a corresponding curve deviates from a general trend. An example of a Python-based user interface allowing for easy data comparison is given in the following section.

50Testing of data file adherence to the YAML standard: This is typically performed by verifying the as-expected operation of several scripts used to access the data and relying on standardized YAML processing libraries. Error or warning messages generated by these scripts indicate a problem in the data record file that must be identified and corrected.

51User feedback: This is our strongest defense line in assuring the integrity of the data records. The users report errors via the GitHub page of the refractiveindex.info project or by directly contacting the maintainer. Each report is analyzed, and necessary corrections are promptly implemented.

Usage Notes

52The described dataset is a collection of human-readable YAML files, meticulously organized for user convenience. While these files can be directly individually accessed for specific optical constants of materials, organizing them in a logically-structured way and employing computer programs for data retrieval and analysis unleashes the dataset’s comprehensive utility. The YAML format, a standardized data serialization language, ensures that the data files are easily parsable with libraries such as PyYAML for Python and libyaml for C/C++.

53The refractiveindex.info database is build upon the dataset described in the previous sections and include additions aimed at simplifying the access and navigation through the data. The main addition is a descriptor defining a hierarchical structure akin to a library. In this setup, each data record is akin to a "page," housed within a "book," and all such books are systematically arranged on different "shelves." This logical structure is defined and maintained through YAML-based catalog files, that categorize each data record following the ‘library’ analogy and indicate the relative path of the corresponding data records.

54The library is defined by two catalog files: catalog-nk.yml for linear optical properties and catalog-n2.yml for nonlinear properties. Below is an excerpt from the catalog-n2.yml file, exemplifying the integration of HTML typesetting and showcasing optional entries like ‘DIVIDER’ and ‘info’. The ‘DIVIDER’ is employed to separate distinct groups of books or pages clearly, while ‘info’ links to an HTML file furnishing extra details about a particular shelf, book, or page.

55- SHELF: mainname: “MAIN - simple inorganic materials”content:- DIVIDER: “Al - Aluminates, Aluminium garnets”- BOOK: BeAl2O4name: “BeAl2O4 (Beryllium aluminate, chrysoberyl)”info: “main/BeAl2O4.html”content:- PAGE: Adairname: “Adair 1989”data: “main/BeAl2O4/Adair.yml”...- BOOK: MgAl2O4name: “MgAl2O4 (Magnesium aluminate, spinel)”info: “main/MgAl2O4.html”content:- PAGE: Flomname: “Flom et al. 2015”data: “main/MgAl2O4/Flom.yml”- PAGE: Adairname: “Adair et al. 1989”data: “main/MgAl2O4/Adair.yml”...

56In this schema:‘SHELF’ represents a specific category or collection of materials.‘BOOK’ denotes a particular material.‘PAGE’ entries detail individual data records associated with a material.‘DIVIDER’ assists in visually and logically separating related materials or data records, enhancing the navigation experience.

57‘SHELF’ represents a specific category or collection of materials.

58‘BOOK’ denotes a particular material.

59‘PAGE’ entries detail individual data records associated with a material.

60‘DIVIDER’ assists in visually and logically separating related materials or data records, enhancing the navigation experience.

61The ‘info’ entry specifies paths to additional HTML-based information, enabling users to access in-depth insights. Each ‘PAGE’ entry is linked with a ‘data’ field, pointing to the exact location of the data record’s YAML file within the dataset. The ‘name’ entry provides a “long” name for a shelf, book, or page in HTML typesetting. Paths to the data files for the linear (nk) and nonlinear (n2) subsets of the database, as well as to the HTML files with additional information (info), are relative to the data-nk, data-n2, and info directories, respectively, all located in the database’s root directory.

62It’s important to note that users can create alternative ‘catalog’ files tailored to their specific needs. For instance, a customized catalog can contain only a subset of the dataset that is relevant for a particular application or study.

63To aid users in navigating the data, two Python scripts, nkexplorer.py and n2explorer.py, are housed in the tools folder in the root directory of the refractiveindex.info database. These utilities, boasting a QT-based graphical interface, facilitate the location and comparison of data from a variety of sources. Figure 1 displays the n2explorer.py interface, illustrating the visual comparison of n2 data for SiO2 sourced from multiple publications.

64Furthermore, users have the option to access the database through the RefractiveIndex.INFO website (https://refractiveindex.info). This online platform facilitates the browsing of data records and computations of various optical properties linked with n and k constants, such as Abbe numbers, reflectance, and Brewster’s angle.

65A variety of third-party scripts and web applications that harness the refractiveindex.info dataset can be found, notably on GitHub. These tools offer users alternative avenues to efficiently access and employ the data.

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81.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
82.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
83.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
84.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
85.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
86.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
87.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
88.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
89.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
90.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
91.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
92.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
93.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
94.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
95.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
96.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
97.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
98.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
99.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
100.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
101.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
102.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
103.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
104.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
105.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
106.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
107.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
108.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
109.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
110.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
111.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
112.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
113.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
114.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
115.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
116.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
117.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
118.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
119.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
120.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
121.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
122.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
123.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
124.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
125.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
126.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
127.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
128.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
129.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
130.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
131.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
132.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
133.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
134.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
135.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
136.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
137.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
138.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
139.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
140.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
141.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
142.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
143.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
144.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
145.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
146.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
147.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
148.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
149.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
150.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
151.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
152.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
153.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
154.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
155.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
156.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
157.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
158.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
159.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
160.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
161.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
162.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
163.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
164.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
165.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
166.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
167.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
168.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
169.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
170.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
171.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
172.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
173.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
174.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
175.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
176.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
177.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
178.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
179.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
180.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
181.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
182.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
183.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
184.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
185.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
186.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
187.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
188.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
189.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
190.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
191.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
192.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
193.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
194.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
195.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
196.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
197.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
198.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
199.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
200.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
201.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
202.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
203.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
204.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
205.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
206.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
207.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
208.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
209.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
210.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
211.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
212.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
213.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
214.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
215.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
216.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
217.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
218.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
219.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
220.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
221.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
222.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
223.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
224.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
225.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
226.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
227.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
228.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
229.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
230.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
231.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
232.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
233.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
234.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
235.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
236.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
237.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
238.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
239.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
240.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
241.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
242.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
243.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
244.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
245.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
246.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
247.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
248.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
249.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
250.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
251.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
252.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
253.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
254.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
255.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
256.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
257.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
258.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
259.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
260.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
261.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
262.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
263.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
264.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
265.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
266.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
267.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
268.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
269.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
270.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
271.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
272.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
273.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
274.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
275.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
276.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
277.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
278.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
279.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
280.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
281.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
282.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
283.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
284.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
285.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
286.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
287.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
288.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
289.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
290.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
291.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
292.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
293.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
294.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
295.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
296.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
297.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
298.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
299.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
300.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
301.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
302.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
303.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
304.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
305.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
306.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
307.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
308.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
309.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
310.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
311.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
312.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
313.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
314.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
315.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
316.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
317.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
318.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
319.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
320.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
321.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
322.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
323.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
324.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
325.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
326.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
327.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
328.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
329.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
330.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
331.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
332.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
333.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
334.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
335.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
336.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
337.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
338.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
339.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
340.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
341.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
342.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
343.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
344.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
345.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
346.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
347.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
348.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
349.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
350.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
351.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
352.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
353.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
354.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
355.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
356.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
357.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
358.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
359.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
360.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
361.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
362.
This reference’s wording can’t be shown under the paper’s licence.
Not in our library
363.
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Giant optical anisotropy in transition metal dichalcogenides for next-generation photonics · 2021
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Short-wave infrared (SWIR) polarization imaging using division-of-focal-plane imaging polarimeter · 2025
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