The colorectal cancer epidemic: challenges and opportunities for primary, secondary and tertiary prevention

Abstract

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is both one of the most common and one of the most preventable cancers globally, with powerful but strongly missed potential for primary, secondary and tertiary prevention. CRC incidence has traditionally been the highest in affluent Western countries, but it is now increasing rapidly with economic development in many other parts of the world. CRC shares several main risk factors, such as smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, physical inactivity and being overweight, with other common diseases; therefore, primary prevention efforts to reduce these risk factors are expected to have multiple beneficial effects that extend beyond CRC prevention, and should have high public health impact. A sizeable reduction in the incidence and mortality of CRC can also be achieved by offering effective screening tests, such as faecal immunochemical tests, flexible sigmoidoscopy and colonoscopy, in organised screening programmes which have been implemented in an increasing number of countries. Countries with early and high uptake rates of effective screening have exhibited major declines in CRC incidence and mortality, in contrast to most other countries. Finally, increasing evidence shows that the prognosis and quality of life of CRC patients can be substantially improved by tertiary prevention measures, such as the administration of low-dose aspirin and the promotion of physical activity.

References 103

1. 1.

   Ferlay J, et al. Cancer incidence and mortality worldwide: sources, methods and major patterns in GLOBOCAN 2012. Int. J. Cancer. 2015;136:E359-386.

   Not in our library10.1002/ijc.29210

2. 2.

   Babaei M, et al. Minimally invasive colorectal cancer surgery in Europe: implementation and outcomes. Med. (Baltim.). 2016;95:e3812.

   Not in our library10.1097/md.0000000000003812

3. 3.

   Brenner H, Kloor M, Pox CP. Colorectal cancer. Lancet. 2014;383:1490-1502.

   Not in our library10.1016/s0140-6736(13)61649-9

4. 4.

   Babaei M, et al. Neoadjuvant therapy in rectal cancer patients with clinical Stage II to III across European countries: variations and outcomes. Clin. Colorectal Cancer. 2018;17:e129-e142.

   Not in our library10.1016/j.clcc.2017.09.002

5. 5.

   Babaei M, et al. Administration of adjuvant chemotherapy for stage II-III colon cancer patients: an European population-based study. Int. J. Cancer. 2018;142:1480-1489.

   Not in our library10.1002/ijc.31168

6. 6.

   Jemal, A. et al. Annual report to the nation on the status of cancer, 1975–2014, featuring survival. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 109 (2017).

   Not in our library10.1093/jnci/djx030

7. 7.

   Holleczek B, et al. On-going improvement and persistent differences in the survival for patients with colon and rectum cancer across Europe 1999–2007—Results from the EUROCARE-5 study. Eur. J. Cancer. 2015;51:2158-2168.

   Not in our library10.1016/j.ejca.2015.07.024

8. 8.

   Siegel RL, et al. Colorectal cancer statistics, 2017. CA Cancer J. Clin. 2017;67:177-193.

   Not in our library10.3322/caac.21395

9. 9.

   Arnold M, et al. Global patterns and trends in colorectal cancer incidence and mortality. Gut. 2017;66:683-691.

   Not in our library10.1136/gutjnl-2015-310912

10. 10.

    Brenner H, Schrotz-King P, Holleczek B, Katalinic A, Hoffmeister M. Declining bowel cancer incidence and mortality in Germany: an analysis of time trends in the first ten years after the introduction of screening colonoscopy. Dtsch. Ärzteblatt Int. 2016;113:101-106.

    Not in our library10.3238/arztebl.2016.0101

11. 11.

    Chen C, Lacke E, Stock C, Hoffmeister M, Brenner H. Colonoscopy and sigmoidoscopy use among older adults in different countries: a systematic review. Prev. Med. 2017;103:33-42.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ypmed.2017.07.021

12. 12.

    Siegel, R. L. et al. Colorectal cancer incidence patterns in the United States, 1974–2013. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 109 (2017).

    Not in our library10.1093/jnci/djw322

13. 13.

    Botteri E, et al. Smoking and colorectal cancer: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 2008;300:2765-2778.

    Not in our library10.1001/jama.2008.839

14. 14.

    Bagnardi V, et al. Alcohol consumption and site-specific cancer risk: a comprehensive dose-response meta-analysis. Br. J. Cancer. 2015;112:580-593.

    Not in our library10.1038/bjc.2014.579

15. 15.

    Freisling H, et al. Comparison of general obesity and measures of body fat distribution in older adults in relation to cancer risk: meta-analysis of individual participant data of seven prospective cohorts in Europe. Br. J. Cancer. 2017;116:1486-1497.

    Not in our library10.1038/bjc.2017.106

16. 16.

    Vieira AR, et al. Foods and beverages and colorectal cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies, an update of the evidence of the WCRF-AICR continuous update project. Ann. Oncol. 2017;28:1788-1802.

    Not in our library10.1093/annonc/mdx171

17. 17.

    Boyle T, Keegel T, Bull F, Heyworth J, Fritschi L. Physical activity and risks of proximal and distal colon cancers: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 2012;104:1548-1561.

    Not in our library10.1093/jnci/djs354

18. 18.

    Algra AM, Rothwell PM. Effects of regular aspirin on long-term cancer incidence and metastasis: a systematic comparison of evidence from observational studies versus randomised trials. Lancet Oncol. 2012;13:518-527.

    Not in our library10.1016/s1470-2045(12)70112-2

19. 19.

    Cao Y, et al. Population-wide impact of long-term use of aspirin and the risk for cancer. JAMA Oncol. 2016;2:762-769.

    Not in our library10.1001/jamaoncol.2015.6396

20. 20.

    Green J, et al. Menopausal hormone therapy and risk of gastrointestinal cancer: nested case-control study within a prospective cohort, and meta-analysis. Int. J. Cancer. 2012;130:2387-2396.

    Not in our library10.1002/ijc.26236

21. 21.

    http://www.tobaccoatlas.org/topic/cigarette-use-globally/ Accessed 3 Jan 2018.

    Not in our library

22. 22.
    Worldwide trends in body-mass index, underweight, overweight, and obesity from 1975 to 2016: a pooled analysis of 2416 population-based measurement studies in 128·9 million children, adolescents, and adults · 2017

    No notice
23. 23.

    Young JP, et al. Rising incidence of early-onset colorectal cancer in Australia over two decades: report and review. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2015;30:6-13.

    Not in our library10.1111/jgh.12792

24. 24.

    Hidayat K, Yang CM, Shi BM. Body fatness at an early age and risk of colorectal cancer. Int. J. Cancer. 2018;142:729-740.

    Not in our library10.1002/ijc.31100

25. 25.

    Ogino S, Chan AT, Fuchs CS, Giovannucci E. Molecular pathological epidemiology of colorectal neoplasia: an emerging transdisciplinary and interdisciplinary field. Gut. 2011;60:397-411.

    Not in our library10.1136/gut.2010.217182

26. 26.

    Hughes LAE, Simons CCJM, van den Brandt PA, van Engeland M, Weijenberg MP. Lifestyle, diet, and colorectal cancer risk according to (Epi)genetic instability: current evidence and future directions of molecular pathological epidemiology. Curr. Colorectal Cancer Rep. 2017;13:455-469.

    Not in our library10.1007/s11888-017-0395-0

27. 27.

    Rescigno, T., Micolucci, L., Tecce, M. F., Capasso, A. Bioactive nutrients and nutrigenomics in age-related diseases. Molecules22, pii: E105 (2017).

    Not in our library10.3390/molecules22010105

28. 28.

    Slattery ML, et al. Infrequently expressed miRNAs in colorectal cancer tissue and tumor molecular phenotype. Mod. Pathol. 2017;30:1152-1169.

    Not in our library10.1038/modpathol.2017.38

29. 29.

    Ogino S, et al. Integrative analysis of exogenous, endogenous, tumour and immune factors for precision medicine. Gut. 2018;67:1168-1180.

    Not in our library10.1136/gutjnl-2017-315537

30. 30.

    Carr PR, et al. Lifestyle factors and risk of sporadic colorectal cancer by microsatellite instability status: a systematic review and meta-analyses. Ann. Oncol. 2018;29:825-834.

    Not in our library10.1093/annonc/mdy059

31. 31.

    Oosterhoff M, Joore M, Ferreira I. The effects of school-based lifestyle interventions on body mass index and blood pressure: a multivariate multilevel meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Obes. Rev. 2016;17:1131-1153.

    Not in our library10.1111/obr.12446

32. 32.

    Bibbins-Domingo K. Aspirin use for the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease and colorectal cancer: U.S. preventive services task force recommendation statement. Ann. Intern. Med. 2016;164:836-845.

    Not in our library10.7326/m16-0577

33. 33.

    Singh Ranger G. The role of aspirin in colorectal cancer chemoprevention. Crit. Rev. Oncol. Hematol. 2016;104:87-90.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.critrevonc.2016.05.011

34. 34.

    Marjoribanks J, Farquhar C, Roberts H, Lethaby A, Lee J. Long-term hormone therapy for perimenopausal and postmenopausal women. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2017;1:Cd004143.

    Not in our library10.1002/14651858.cd004143.pub5

35. 35.

    Gartlehner G, et al. Hormone therapy for the primary prevention of chronic conditions in postmenopausal women: evidence report and systematic review for the US Preventive Services Task Force. JAMA. 2017;318:2234-2249.

    Not in our library10.1001/jama.2017.16952

36. 36.

    Brenner H, Altenhofen L, Stock C, Hoffmeister M. Natural history of colorectal adenomas: birth cohort analysis among 3.6 million participants of screening colonoscopy. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 2013;22:1043-1051.

    Not in our library10.1158/1055-9965.epi-13-0162

37. 37.

    Hewitson P, Glasziou P, Watson E, Towler B, Irwig L. Cochrane systematic review of colorectal cancer screening using the fecal occult blood test (hemoccult): an update. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 2008;103:1541-1549.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1572-0241.2008.01875.x

38. 38.

    Scholefield JH, Moss SM, Mangham CM, Whynes DK, Hardcastle JD. Nottingham trial of faecal occult blood testing for colorectal cancer: a 20-year follow-up. Gut. 2012;61:1036-1040.

    Not in our library10.1136/gutjnl-2011-300774

39. 39.

    Shaukat A, et al. Long-term mortality after screening for colorectal cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 2013;369:1106-1114.

    Not in our library10.1056/nejmoa1300720

40. 40.

    Hol L, et al. Screening for colorectal cancer: randomised trial comparing guaiac-based and immunochemical faecal occult blood testing and flexible sigmoidoscopy. Gut. 2010;59:62-68.

    Not in our library10.1136/gut.2009.177089

Reads

A person counts once a day per paper. We keep no cookie and no address: a reader is a hash that changes every day. Any month under five reads shows no number.