A Dynamic 6,000-Year Genetic History of Eurasia’s Eastern Steppe

Abstract

The Eastern Eurasian Steppe was home to historic empires of nomadic pastoralists, including the Xiongnu and the Mongols. However, little is known about the region's population history. Here, we reveal its dynamic genetic history by analyzing new genome-wide data for 214 ancient individuals spanning 6,000 years. We identify a pastoralist expansion into Mongolia ca. 3000 BCE, and by the Late Bronze Age, Mongolian populations were biogeographically structured into three distinct groups, all practicing dairy pastoralism regardless of ancestry. The Xiongnu emerged from the mixing of these populations and those from surrounding regions. By comparison, the Mongols exhibit much higher eastern Eurasian ancestry, resembling present-day Mongolic-speaking populations. Our results illuminate the complex interplay between genetic, sociopolitical, and cultural changes on the Eastern Steppe.

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     Rasmussen M., Li Y., Lindgreen S., Pedersen J.S., Albrechtsen A., Moltke I., Metspalu M., Metspalu E., Kivisild T., Gupta R. Ancient human genome sequence of an extinct Palaeo-Eskimo. Nature. 2010;463:757-762.

     Not in our library10.1038/nature08835

107. 107.

     Rasmussen M., Anzick S.L., Waters M.R., Skoglund P., DeGiorgio M., Stafford T.W., Rasmussen S., Moltke I., Albrechtsen A., Doyle S.M. The genome of a Late Pleistocene human from a Clovis burial site in western Montana. Nature. 2014;506:225-229.

     Not in our library10.1038/nature13025

108. 108.

     Rasmussen M., Sikora M., Albrechtsen A., Korneliussen T.S., Moreno-Mayar J.V., Poznik G.D., Zollikofer C.P.E., de León M.P., Allentoft M.E., Moltke I. The ancestry and affiliations of Kennewick Man. Nature. 2015;523:455-458.

     Not in our library10.1038/nature14625

109. 109.

     Reimer P.J., Bard E., Bayliss A., Warren Beck J., Blackwell P.G., Ramsey C.B., Buck C.E., Cheng H., Lawrence Edwards R., Friedrich M. IntCal13 and Marine13 Radiocarbon Age Calibration Curves 0–50,000 Years cal BP. Radiocarbon. 2013;55:1869-1887.

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110. 110.
     Schmutzi: estimation of contamination and endogenous mitochondrial consensus calling for ancient DNA · 2015

     No notice
111. 111.

     Rogers L. Understanding ancient human population genetics of the eastern Eurasian steppe through mitochondrial DNA analysis: Central Mongolian samples from the Neolithic, Bronze Age, Iron Age and Mongol Empire periods. PhD thesis. 2016.

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112. 112.

     Rogers L.L., Honeychurch W., Amartuvshin C., Kaestle F.A. U5a1 Mitochondrial DNA Haplotype Identified in Eneolithic Skeleton from Shatar Chuluu, Mongolia. Human Biology. 2020;91:213-223.

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113. 113.

     Rohland N., Harney E., Mallick S., Nordenfelt S., Reich D. Partial uracil-DNA-glycosylase treatment for screening of ancient DNA. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 2015;370:20130624.

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114. 114.

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115. 115.

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116. 116.

     Samashev Z. Berel. 2011.

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117. 117.

     Savinov D.G. Rannie kochevniki Verkhnego Yeniseya. 2002.

     Not in our library

118. 118.
     Temporal Patterns of Nucleotide Misincorporations and DNA Fragmentation in Ancient DNA · 2012

     No notice
119. 119.
     AdapterRemoval v2: rapid adapter trimming, identification, and read merging · 2016

     No notice
120. 120.

     Sikora M., Pitulko V.V., Sousa V.C., Allentoft M.E., Vinner L., Rasmussen S., Margaryan A., de Barros Damgaard P., de la Fuente C., Renaud G. The population history of northeastern Siberia since the Pleistocene. Nature. 2019;570:182-188.

     Not in our library10.1038/s41586-019-1279-z

121. 121.

     Siska V., Jones E.R., Jeon S., Bhak Y., Kim H.-M., Cho Y.S., Kim H., Lee K., Veselovskaya E., Balueva T. Genome-wide data from two early Neolithic East Asian individuals dating to 7700 years ago. Sci. Adv. 2017;3:e1601877.

     Not in our library10.1126/sciadv.1601877

122. 122.

     Taylor W.T.T., Bayarsaikhan J., Tuvshinjargal T. Equine cranial morphology and the identification of riding and chariotry in late Bronze Age Mongolia. Antiquity. 2015;89:854-871.

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123. 123.

     Taylor W.T.T., Bayarsaikhan J., Tuvshinjargal T., Bender S., Tromp M., Clark J., Lowry K.B., Houle J.L., Staszewski D., Whitworth J., Fitzhugh W. Origins of equine dentistry. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2018;115:E6707-E6715.

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124. 124.

     Taylor W.T.T., Jargalan B., Lowry K.B., Clark J., Tuvshinjargal T., Bayarsaikhan J. A Bayesian chronology for early domestic horse use in the Eastern Steppe. J. Archaeol. Sci. 2017;81:49-58.

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125. 125.

     Taylor W., Wilkin S., Wright J., Dee M., Erdene M., Clark J., Tuvshinjargal T., Bayarsaikhan J., Fitzhugh W., Boivin N. Radiocarbon dating and cultural dynamics across Mongolia’s early pastoral transition. PLoS ONE. 2019;14:e0224241.

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126. 126.

     Törbat T., Eregzen D. Sagsai-shaped graves. Ancient Funeral Monuments of Mongolia. 2016;58-71.

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127. 127.

     Törbat T., Giscard P.H., Batsükh D. First excavation of Pazyryk kurgans in Mongolian Altai. 2009;221-231.

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128. 128.

     Tseveendorj D. Chandmanii Soyol. 1980.

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129. 129.

     Tseveendorj D. Chandmanii soyol (Nemen zasvarlasan khoyor dakh’ khevlel). 2007.

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130. 130.

     Tsybiktarov A.D. Kultura plitochnyih mogil Mongolii i Zabaikalya [Slab Grave Culture of Mongolia and Transbaikalia]. 1998.

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131. 131.

     Tsybiktarov A. Central Asia in the Bronze and Early Iron Ages: Problems of ethnocultural history of Mongolia and the Southern Transbaikal region in the middle second to early first millennia BC. Archaeol. Ethnol. Anthropol. Eurasia. 2003;13:80-97.

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132. 132.

     Unterländer M., Palstra F., Lazaridis I., Pilipenko A., Hofmanová Z., Groß M., Sell C., Blöcher J., Kirsanow K., Rohland N. Ancestry and demography and descendants of Iron Age nomads of the Eurasian Steppe. Nat. Commun. 2017;8:14615.

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133. 133.

     Vadetskaya E., Polyakov A., Stepanova N. Svod pamyatnikov afanas’evskoi kul’tury. 2014.

     Not in our library

134. 134.

     Ventresca Miller A.R., Makarewicz C.A. Intensification in pastoralist cereal use coincides with the expansion of trans-regional networks in the Eurasian Steppe. Sci. Rep. 2019;9:8363.

     Not in our library10.1038/s41598-018-35758-w

135. 135.

     Volkov V. Olennye kamni Mongolii. 2002.

     Not in our library

136. 136.
     Ancient human genome-wide data from a 3000-year interval in the Caucasus corresponds with eco-geographic regions · 2019

     No notice
137. 137.

     Weissensteiner H., Pacher D., Kloss-Brandstätter A., Forer L., Specht G., Bandelt H.-J., Kronenberg F., Salas A., Schönherr S. HaploGrep 2: mitochondrial haplogroup classification in the era of high-throughput sequencing. Nucleic Acids Res. 2016;44(W1):W58-W63.

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138. 138.

     Wilkin S., Ventresca Miller A., Taylor W.T.T., Miller B.K., Hagan R.W., Bleasdale M., Scott A., Gankhuyg S., Ramsøe A., Uliziibayar S. Dairy pastoralism sustained eastern Eurasian steppe populations for 5,000 years. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 2020;4:346-355.

     Not in our library10.1038/s41559-020-1120-y

139. 139.

     Wilkin S., Ventresca Miller A., Miller B.K., Spengler R.N., Taylor W.T.T., Fernandes R., Hagan R.W., Bleasdale M., Zech J., Ulziibayar S. Economic diversification supported the growth of Mongolia’s nomadic empires. Sci. Rep. 2020;10:3916.

     Not in our library10.1038/s41598-020-60194-0

140. 140.

     Wright J.S.C. Temporal perspectives on the monumental constellations of Inner Asia. “As Time Goes By?” Monumentality, Landscapes and the Temporal Perspective. 2012.

     Not in our library

141. 141.

     Yang M.A., Gao X., Theunert C., Tong H., Aximu-Petri A., Nickel B., Slatkin M., Meyer M., Pääbo S., Kelso J., Fu Q. 40,000-Year-Old Individual from Asia Provides Insight into Early Population Structure in Eurasia. Curr. Biol. 2017;27:3202-3208.e9.

     Not in our library10.1016/j.cub.2017.09.030

142. 142.

     Zazzo A., Lepetz S., Magail J., Gantulga J.-O. High-precision dating of ceremonial activity around a large ritual complex in Late Bronze Age Mongolia. Antiquity. 2019;93:80-98.

     Not in our library

143. 143.

     Zerjal T., Xue Y., Bertorelle G., Wells R.S., Bao W., Zhu S., Qamar R., Ayub Q., Mohyuddin A., Fu S. The genetic legacy of the Mongols. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 2003;72:717-721.

     Not in our library10.1086/367774

144. 144.

     Zwyns N., Paine C.H., Tsedendorj B., Talamo S., Fitzsimmons K.E., Gantumur A., Guunii L., Davakhuu O., Flas D., Dogandžić T. The Northern Route for Human dispersal in Central and Northeast Asia: New evidence from the site of Tolbor-16, Mongolia. Sci. Rep. 2019;9:11759.

     Not in our library10.1038/s41598-019-47972-1

Cited by papers we hold 2

• The Allen Ancient DNA Resource (AADR) a curated compendium of ancient human genomes · 2024
  No notice
• Accurate detection of identity-by-descent segments in human ancient DNA · 2023
  No notice

Reads

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