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Apolipoproteins and cancer

Liwen Ren, Jie Yi, Wan Li and 4 more

Cancer Medicine · 2019 · Review · CC BY

doi:10.1002/cam4.2587

Abstract

The role of apolipoproteins in cardiovascular disease has been well investigated, but their participation in cancer has only been explored in a few published studies which showed a close link with certain kinds of cancer. In this review, we focused on the function of different kinds of apolipoproteins in cancers, autophagy, oxidative stress, and drug resistance. The potential application of apolipoproteins as biomarkers for cancer diagnosis and prognosis was highlighted, together with an investigation of their potential as drug targets for cancer treatment. Many important roles of apolipoproteins and their mechanisms in cancers were reviewed in detail and future perspectives of apolipoprotein research were discussed.

Full text

From PubMed Central, U.S. National Library of Medicine, as current on Oct 25, 2026. Paragraph numbers are ours, so an answer can point at one.

INTRODUCTION

Apolipoproteins (APOs) bind to lipids to form lipoproteins. By functioning as lipid carriers, apolipoproteins act as ligands for cell membrane receptors, cofactors of enzymes and structural components of lipoproteins.1 APOs could bind and transport blood lipids to various tissues of the body for metabolism and utilization. The human apolipoprotein gene family consists of 22 members: APOA1, APOA2, APOA4, APOA5, APOB‐48, APOB‐100, APOC1, APOC2, APOC3, APOC4, APOD, APOE, APOH, APOL1, APOL2, APOL3, APOL4, APOL5, APOL6, APOM, APOO, and APOJ. These 22 apolipoproteins are classified into 10 subfamilies (APOA‐APOJ) (Table 1).

Different APOs bind lipids to form lipoproteins of different densities, and lipoproteins can be divided into several types according to their densities (Figure 1): chylomicrons (CM), very low density lipoprotein (VLDL), low density lipoprotein (LDL), intermediate density lipoprotein (IDL), and high density lipoprotein (HDL).2 Some APOs can combine with several different types of lipoproteins. For example, APOA1 is the major structural protein component of HDL and it is present in other lipoproteins in smaller amounts. APOB plays a particularly important role in lipoprotein transport being the primary organizing protein of many lipoproteins.3

APOs are mainly synthesized in the liver and intestine. In the liver, the synthesis of APOs is affected by alcohol consumption, the administration of lipid‐lowering drugs, fibric acids or niacin, diet and various hormones, estrogens, androgens, insulin, glucagon and thyroxin. In the intestine, the synthesis of apolipoproteins is predominantly controlled by lipid content in the diet.4

Evidence from numerous studies has shown that APOs play a vital role in cardiovascular disease, such as atherosclerosis and coronary artery disorders,1, 2, 5 but a number of recent reports have linked apolipoproteins with various types of cancers. Here we review and summarize the current research findings on the function, mechanism, and clinical attributes of all APOs in cancer.

APOLIPOPROTEINS AND CANCER

Of the 22 APOs currently known (Table 1) most were found to have many vital functions in cancers via diverse mechanisms (Figure 2).

APOA and cancer

APOA1, APOA2, APOA4, and APOA5 are the main components of HDL particles.

The expression of APOA1 was reduced in some kinds of cancers while increased in others. The reduction in serum APOA1 levels was used as an independent predictor for metastasis or unfavorable prognosis of many cancers, such as ovarian cancer,6 nonsmall cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC),7 nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC),8 colorectal cancer,9 lymphoma,10 prostate cancer, 11 and renal cell cancer (RCC).12 On the other hand, increased expression of APOA1 was seen in some other types of cancers including small cell lung carcinoma (SCLC), hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and bladder cancer. Expression of APOA1 in SCLC was considerably higher than in normal controls and the presence of elevated levels correlated with the recurrence of SCLC.13 The concentration of APOA1 was higher in the serum of HCC patients,14 which could be an inferior prognostic.15 APOA1 was increased in urine from bladder cancer patients and could be considered a diagnostic marker,16 with low preoperative serum APOA1 levels predicting longer survival.17 The role of APOA1 in breast cancer has been controversial. Many studies showed that expression of APOA1 was inversely associated with development of breast cancer,18, 19, 20 but in a few studies, higher APOA1 expression was positively associated with promoting breast cancer.21

APOA1 mimetic peptides are 18‐amino acid sequences that recapitulate the secondary structure and partial function of APOA1.22 APOA1 mimetic peptides were found to inhibit the development of ovarian cancer,23 breast cancer,24 colon cancer,25 and pancreatic cancer 26 both in vitro and in vivo. APOA1 itself could also exert a suppressive effect on ovarian cancer.23 APOA1 might promote apoptosis and inhibit HCC cell proliferation by arresting the cell cycle via down‐regulation of the MAPK (mitogen‐activated protein kinase) pathway.15 APOA1 could suppress growth and metastasis of melanoma in vivo through both innate and adaptive immune pathways, but there were no significant direct suppressive effects by APOA1 on melanoma cells.27 Treatment with APOA1 mimetic peptides improved the phenotypic, inflammatory, and histopathological manifestations of colitis‐propelled carcinogenesis.28

The level of APOA2 in serum was dramatically reduced in patients with gastric cancer and multiple myeloma,29, 30 but increased in HCC and prostate cancer.31, 32 APOA2 was highly overexpressed in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with pediatric brain tumor.33 Expression of APOA2 was significantly reduced in pancreatic cancer and APOA2 might be used as an early diagnostic marker and risk factor for it.34

APOA4 expression in HCC tissues was dramatically reduced compared to normal controls.14 The serum level of APOA4 was also reduced in the serum of patients with ovarian cancer.35

Apolipoprotein B and cancer

APOB was shown to regulate the expression of many genes in development of HCC and was related to poor prognosis in HCC patients.36 Low expression of APOB was related to the increase of metastatic and oncogenic regulators in HCC, such as FOXM1, MTIF, HGF, CD44, and ERBB2, and suppression of tumor suppressors, such as PTEN and TP53. Inactivation of APOB was linked to poor prognosis in HCC patients possibly through its function in regulating numerous genes concerned with the development of HCC.36

Apolipoprotein C and cancer

The APOC family consists of four members, APOC1, APOC2, APOC3, and APOC4, which are surface components of CM, VLDL, and HDL.37

APOC1 was overexpressed in pancreatic cancers and an increased level of APOC1 in preoperative serum of patients was considered to reflect an unfavorable prognosis. Knockdown of APOC1 expression inhibited proliferation and prompted apoptosis of pancreatic cancer cells.38 Overexpression of APOC1in breast cancer patients had diagnostic utility in distinguishing between triple‐negative breast cancer (TNBC) and non‐TNBC and thus was a potential prognostic factor for TNBC.39 APOC1 expression was increased in acute myeloid leukemia and played an oncogenic role in disease progression by mediating H3 acetylation regulated by ANP32A.40

Knockdown of APOC1 expression significantly suppressed proliferation of tumor cells and decreased colony formation, whereas overexpression of APOC1 increased growth of THP1 and HL60 cells. The expressions of APOC1 mRNA and protein were upregulated in prostate cancer tissues and the serum levels of APOC1 were increased in prostate cancer patients.41 The mRNA and protein of APOC1 were also highly expressed in lung cancer tissues at the late stage, but no prognostic effect of serum levels of APOC1 could be found in lung cancer patients.42

The serum levels of APOC1 were significantly decreased in NSCLC,43 colorectal cancer,44 papillary thyroid carcinoma 45 and child nephroblastoma,46 and might be a diagnostic or prognostic marker of these cancers. There were some evidences that APOC1 facilitated tumor progression in colorectal cancer through the MAPK signaling pathway.47

Serum levels of APOC2 were elevated in pancreatic cancer patients compared to controls and had prognostic value for surgery.48

Apolipoprotein D and cancer

APOD is an atypical apolipoprotein primarily associated with HDL in human plasma.49

APOD expression in HCC tissues was significantly lower than that in normal controls and it was identified as an independent prognostic marker of HCC.50 The mRNA expression of APOD was dramatically downregulated in colorectal tumors compared to normal colorectal tissues, and reduced expression of APOD was tightly related to lymph node metastasis status, advanced stages, and lower overall survival.51 The overall survival of patients with epithelial ovarian carcinoma was lower when tumors were APOD‐negative than in APOD‐positive tumors.52 APOD was identified as a biomarker for low grade, noninfiltrating primary CNS neoplasms.53 Low APOD expression was related to a shorter relapse‐free survival and poor prognosis in breast cancer.54

In contrast, APOD was highly expressed in malignant melanoma and might be useful as a prognostic marker of cutaneous malignant melanoma.55 Other evidence suggested that elevated cellular APOD expression correlated with malignant transformation of the prostate.56 The content of APOD was increased in the urine of patients with renal cell cancer.57

Apolipoprotein E and cancer

APOE consists of 299 amino acids with numerous amphipathic α‐helices. APOE has three main alleles: APOE‐ε2 (cys112, cys158), APOE‐ε3 (cys112, arg158), and APOE‐ε4 (arg112, arg158). These allelic forms differ from each other by two amino acids at positions 112 and 158, these differences alter APOE structure and function.58 Many kinds of cancers showed elevated expression of APOE.

Both APOE mRNA and protein levels were higher in NSCLC tissue59 and serum APOE was increased in NSCLC patients. Higher APOE levels correlated with lymph node metastasis, distant metastasis, TNM stages, and poor prognosis.60 APOE was up‐regulated in gastric cancer and such patients had shorter survival times. There was a strong link between APOE levels and risk of muscular invasion making it a promising marker for predicting the invasions of gastric tumors.61, 62

APOE was overexpressed in various ovarian cell lines and tissues and it was essential for growth and survival of ovarian cancer cells.63 The level of APOE in the serum of patients with ovarian cancer was dramatically increased over healthy individuals and as a marker, it could enhance the specificity and sensitivity of ovarian cancer diagnosis.64 APOE was highly expressed in the PC‐3 human prostate cancer cell line and its expression was directly correlated with the Gleason score of prostate cancer tissues, hormone independence and local and distant metastasis.65

APOE is among the best‐verified potential prognostic or diagnostic marker in many other cancers. Serum levels of APOE were related to the overall survival rate of metastatic colorectal cancer patients under chemotherapy and bevacizumab treatment.66 APOE was highly increased in the urine of bladder cancer patients and the levels correlated with the tumor stage.67 Thus, APOE testing of the urine could provide a potential marker for noninvasive bladder cancer.68 Increased levels of APOE were measured in the serum and tissues of pancreatic cancer patients and this may prove useful as an early screening tool for the disease.69 Higher serum levels of APOE were related to the progression of breast cancer and poor prognosis in the patients.70 APOE protein was frequently elevated in HCC tissues and might be a suitable histological marker for HCC.71

APOE participated in the transport of lipids to glioblastoma cells and in the recycling of lipids in necrotic areas by macrophages.72 Activation of APOE restricted the innate immune system's suppression of cancer cell proliferation, thus promoting tumor growth and metastasis in many types of cancers.73 APOE was regulated by various miRNAs and increased LRP1/LRP8‐dependent melanoma metastasis and angiogenesis.74

Apolipoprotein H and cancer

APOH is a multifunctional apolipoprotein encoded by the human APOH gene and one of its functions is to bind cardiolipin.75 APOH was highly overexpressed in hepatitis B‐related HCC tissue,76 significantly upregulated in the urine of renal carcinoma patients compared with healthy controls,77 and APOH expression was significantly increased in leukemia.78

Apolipoprotein L and cancer

APOL consists of APOL1, APOL2, APOL3, APOL4, APOL5, and APOL6, whose structures and functions are similar to those of the proteins of the Bcl‐2 family.79 APOL1 mRNA and protein expression was significantly elevated in the tissue of papillary thyroid carcinomas.80 Expression levels of APOL2 could predict the survival time of patients with bladder cancer.81 The APOL3 region on chromosome 22q12 was found to be a risk locus in hereditary prostate cancer.82 APOL6 was identified as homologous to a Bcl‐2 protein and could induce apoptosis mediated by mitochondria in cancer cells.83

Apolipoprotein M and cancer

There was higher expression of APOM in NSCLC tissues than in non‐NSCLS and of APOM overexpression promoted invasion and proliferation of NSCLC cells in vitro and tumor growth in vivo by upregulating expression of S1PR1 and activating the PI3K/AKT and ERK1/2 signaling pathways.84

In contrast, APOM mRNA and protein expression in HCC tissues were dramatically decreased compared to adjacent healthy tissues.85 Overexpression of APOM inhibited the proliferation, migration, and invasion of hepatoma cells and the development of xenograft tumors in nude mice, and promoted apoptosis.86 APOM mRNA and protein levels were notably reduced in colorectal cancer tissues, compared to adjacent healthy tissues, normal mucosa, polyps, and inflammatory mucosa.87

Apolipoprotein J and cancer

APOJ, also called clusterin, is a ubiquitous, secreted, 75‐80 kDa heterodimeric glycoprotein linked by disulfide bonds, which is involved in apoptosis and the clearance of cellular debris.88 It may be induced by stress and was identified as a cytoprotective chaperone protein that aids folding of secreted proteins. The three isoforms of APOJ were discovered to participate in pro‐ and antiapoptotic processes89 and were abnormally regulated in many severe physiological disturbances including cancer initiation and progression.90

Combined with other chemotherapeutic agents, antisense compounds targeting APOJ proved successful in clinical trials for the treatment of prostate cancer.91, 92 Expression of APOJ protein correlated with Gleason scores in prostate cancer.93 APOJ was also overexpressed in HCC tissues, which corresponded to higher TNM stages and inferior histological grade.94 Overexpression of APOJ promoted epithelial‐mesenchymal transition and migration of HCC in vitro and promoted metastasis in vivo.95 Silencing the APOJ gene enhanced the chemosensitivity of hepatic carcinoma cells.96

APOJ was highly up‐regulated in colon cancer and played oncogenic roles in multistage colorectal tumorigenesis, progression,97 and poor outcome.98 The level of APOJ in serum was significantly increased in colorectal carcinoma and could be used as a prediagnostic marker.99 The increased level of dissociative APOJ in highly aggressive tumors and metastatic nodes might be a predictive and prognostic marker for colon cancer aggressiveness.100

Overexpression of APOJ in ovarian cancer could be diagnostic101 and predictive of adverse outcomes.102 Levels of APOJ in plasma of ovarian cancer patients were abnormally elevated and might be used for early diagnosis of epithelial ovarian cancer.103 APOJ was significantly overexpressed in breast carcinoma104 and could be used as a prognostic factor,105 while blocking APOJ expression could inhibit the invasion and metastasis of human breast cancer cell lines.106

APOJ expression was significantly upregulated in RCC tissues and could be an independent prognostic factor.107 APOJ overexpression in gastric cancer was associated with tumor progression and metastasis108 and in pancreatic carcinoma with lymph node metastasis.109 However, cytoplasmic APOJ expression was related to longer survival in NSCLC patients after surgery.110

APOJ promoted metastasis of colon cancer111 and promoted invasion of tumor via the p38/MAPK/MMP9 pathway.112 APOJ also conferred resistance of breast cancer cells to TNFα and caused apoptosis via activation of NF‐κB and overexpression of Bcl‐2.113

APOLIPOPROTEINS AND AUTOPHAGY IN CANCER

Autophagy is a cellular housekeeping process that degrades and recycles damaged organelles or misfolded proteins in lysosomes.114 It could limit inflammation and tumor necrosis, and mitigate DNA damage in tumor cells in response to metabolic stress.115 Autophagy exerts essential function in cancer metastasis116 and chemotherapy resistance,117 which provides a potential targeting strategy for the treatment of cancer.118

Autophagy is also involved in the homeostasis of lipids, regulating lipid stores, and promoting lipoprotein metabolism.119 Many studies have now shown that autophagy can promote the degradation of APOB.120, 121 Inhibition of APOB synthesis stimulated endoplasmic reticulum autophagy, which could prevent steatosis.122 APOE4 could inhibit autophagy gene products through direct binding to coordinated lysosomal expression and regulation (CLEAR) DNA motifs.123 APOL1, which specifically binds to BH3 (Bcl‐2 homology domain 3), could induce autophagic cell death through upregulating formation of autophagic vacuoles and triggering the translocation of LC3‐II (Autophagy‐Related Protein LC3‐II) from the cytosol to the vacuoles, when overexpressed and accumulated intracellularly.124 APOL6 could promote apoptosis and block beclin1‐dependent autophagy in atherosclerotic cells.125 Combination of APOA1‐modified liposome‐doxorubicin with autophagy inhibitors may overcome multidrug resistance in vitro.126

APOLIPOPROTEINS AND OXIDATIVE STRESS IN CANCER

Oxidative stress (OS) results when the balance is shifted between the systemic level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the detoxification of the reactive intermediates or repair of the resulting damage.127 The redox signaling pathways that respond to ROS, were often up‐regulated in various malignant tumors.128 Some researchers suggested that cancer metastasis was an adaptive approach for cancer cells to evade oxidative damage and escape from ROS.129

Knockdown of APOJ in human cancer cells suppressed cell proliferation, induced apoptosis, and significantly sensitized cells to both genotoxic and OS induced by chemotherapeutic drugs and H2O2.90 Expression of APOD was increased under OS in many pathological situations including cancers. One study found that APOD responded to OS in the tumor microenvironment and could serve as a marker of initial stages of tumor progression.130

APOLIPOPROTEINS AND DRUG RESISTANCE IN CANCER

APOA1 was reported to be associated with resistance to aromatase inhibitors in treatment of breast cancer131 and with resistance to carboplatin and paclitaxel, which are key chemotherapy drugs for epithelial ovarian cancer.132 It was reported that expression of APOD could be used as a novel biomarker of tamoxifen resistance in postmenopausal node‐positive breast cancer patients.133 Knockdown of APOE by siRNA reduced resistance of Hep3B cells to cardiac steroids through mediation of the Na+/K+‐ATPase signalosome.134

Inhibiting APOJ expression using antisense oligonucleotides enhanced sensitivity to androgens,135 chemotherapeutics,136 and radiation137 in prostate cancer. Down‐regulating APOJ gene expression could synergistically chemo‐sensitize bladder cancer cell lines and inhibit growth and metastasis of tumor cells both in vitro and in vivo.138 Suppression of APOJ expression inhibited the growth and metastasis in renal carcinoma models139 and enhanced the effect of cisplatin and sorafenib.140, 141 Increased APOJ expression could confer gemcitabine resistance in pancreatic cancer,142 while APOJ knockdown sensitized pancreatic cancer cells to gemcitabine.143 Knockdown of APOJ chemo‐sensitized human breast cancer cells both in vitro and in vivo.113 APOJ expression was correlated with paclitaxel resistance in cervical cancer cell lines, and resistance was dramatically decreased when the expression of APOJ was reduced by APOJ siRNAs in HeLaS3 cells.144 Expression of APOJ was increased in multidrug‐resistant osteosarcoma cells.145 Thus, APOJ may be used to predict the responsiveness of many cancers to chemotherapy.

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES

Abundant evidence has suggested that the global expansion in excess body weight over the past several decades was closely associated with increasing cancer incidence,146, 147 suggesting a joint focus on lipid metabolism and related mechanisms in cancers. As we have attempted to illustrate above, recent data suggest that APOs participate in essential functions in various cancers.

APOs are the protein part of plasma lipoprotein, which bind and transport blood lipids to various tissues of the body for metabolism and utilization.2 Many studies have found that mutated APOs with different allelic polymorphisms and phenotypes can result in abnormal blood lipid metabolism and utilization, thereby playing important roles in occurrence and development of hyperlipidemia, atherosclerosis, cardiovascular diseases and tumors. APOs could be useful for diagnosis and prognosis in cancer but also as potential therapeutic targets. However, some APOs can be abnormally expressed in different tumors, and there are aberrant expressions of different APOs in the same tumor (Figure 3). Combined screening for multiple APOs or using other methods to ameliorate the sensitivity and specificity of biomarkers in cancers may be the main research direction in the future. Several studies have produced contradictory results for APOs in some cancers, which may require further investigation with larger sample size and more rigorous experimental design.

Many APOs are overexpressed or downregulated in various tumor tissues and cells, and can potentially be used as therapeutic targets by inhibiting expression or using corresponding mimetic peptides. The most successful applications to date in the clinic are the APOJ antisense oligonucleotides for the treatment of prostate cancer. Besides, the APOA1 mimetic peptides have shown excellent therapeutic effects in different ovarian cancer models in vitro and in vivo and are promising candidates for further development.

The majority of APOs are being subjected to preclinical screening research and will necessitate further development. In addition, the expression of APOs is closely related to tumor sensitivity to chemotherapeutic drugs, and combining APO manipulation with drug treatment is expected to enhance their therapeutic effects. However, the mechanisms whereby APOs function in progression of cancers is still unclear, and more studies on APO regulation and metabolism are needed.

APOs are clearly promising therapeutic targets as well as useful diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers in cancers, but much further research is necessary to accelerate the clinical use of APOs and to enhance our understanding of their cancer‐related influences.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work was funded by Beijing Natural Science Foundation (7172142) and by National Natural Science Foundation of China (81573454). This work was also funded by Technology Major Projects for “Major New Drugs Innovation and Development” (2018ZX09711001‐005‐025) and CAMS Innovation Fund for Medical Sciences (2016‐I2M‐3‐007).

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

No conflicts of interest declared.

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    Klee EW, Bondar OP, Goodmanson MK, et al. Candidate serum biomarkers for prostate adenocarcinoma identified by mrna differences in prostate tissue and verified with protein measurements in tissue and blood. Clin Chem. 2012;58:599‐609.

    Not in our library10.1373/clinchem.2011.171637

  42. 42.

    Ko HL, Wang YS, Fong WL, Chi MS, Chi KH, Kao SJ. Apolipoprotein C1 (APOC1) as a novel diagnostic and prognostic biomarker for lung cancer: a marker phase I trial. Thorac Cancer. 2014;5:500‐508.

    Not in our library10.1111/1759-7714.12117

  43. 43.

    Yang Y, Zhao S, Fan Y, et al. Detection and identification of potential biomarkers of non‐small cell lung cancer. Technol Cancer Res Treat. 2009;8:455‐466.

    Not in our library10.1177/153303460900800607

  44. 44.

    Engwegen JY, Depla AC, Smits ME, et al. Detection of colorectal cancer by serum and tissue protein profiling: a prospective study in a population at risk. Biomark Insights. 2008;3:375‐385.

    Not in our library10.4137/bmi.s790

  45. 45.

    Fan Y, Shi L, Liu Q, et al. Discovery and identification of potential biomarkers of papillary thyroid carcinoma. Mol Cancer. 2009;8:79.

    Not in our library10.1186/1476-4598-8-79

  46. 46.

    Zhang J, Guo F, Wang L, et al. Identification of apolipoprotein C‐I as a potential wilms' tumor marker after excluding inflammatory factors. Int J Mol Sci. 2014;15:16186‐16195.

    Not in our library10.3390/ijms150916186

  47. 47.

    Ren H, Chen Z, Yang L, et al. Apolipoprotein C1 (APOC1) promotes tumor progression via mapk signaling pathways in colorectal cancer. Cancer Manag Res. 2019;11:4917‐4930.

    Not in our library10.2147/cmar.s192529

  48. 48.

    Xue A, Chang JW, Chung L, et al. Serum apolipoprotein C‐II is prognostic for survival after pancreatic resection for adenocarcinoma. Br J Cancer. 2012;107:1883‐1891.

    Not in our library10.1038/bjc.2012.458

  49. 49.

    Rassart E, Bedirian A, Do Carmo S, et al. Apolipoprotein D. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2000;1482:185‐198.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0167-4838(00)00162-x

  50. 50.

    Utsunomiya T, Ogawa K, Yoshinaga K, et al. Clinicopathologic and prognostic values of apolipoprotein d alterations in hepatocellular carcinoma. Int J Cancer. 2005;116:105‐109.

    Not in our library10.1002/ijc.20986

  51. 51.

    Ogawa K, Utsunomiya T, Mimori K, et al. Genomic screens for genes upregulated by demethylation in colorectal cancer: possible usefulness for clinical application. Int J Oncol. 2005;27:417‐426.

    Not in our library

  52. 52.

    Vazquez J, Gonzalez L, Merino A, Vizoso F. Expression and clinical significance of apolipoprotein d in epithelial ovarian carcinomas. Gynecol Oncol. 2000;76:340‐347.

    Not in our library10.1006/gyno.1999.5678

  53. 53.

    Hunter S, Young A, Olson J, et al. Differential expression between pilocytic and anaplastic astrocytomas: Identification of apolipoprotein D as a marker for low‐grade, non‐infiltrating primary CNS neoplasms. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 2002;61:275‐281.

    Not in our library10.1093/jnen/61.3.275

  54. 54.

    Diez‐Itza I, Vizoso F, Merino AM, et al. Expression and prognostic significance of apolipoprotein d in breast cancer. Am J Pathol. 1994;144:310‐320.

    Not in our library

  55. 55.

    Miranda E, Vizoso F, Martín A, et al. Apolipoprotein D expression in cutaneous malignant melanoma. J Surg Oncol. 2003;83:99‐105.

    Not in our library10.1002/jso.10245

  56. 56.

    Hall RE, Horsfall DJ, Stahl J, et al. Apolipoprotein‐D: a novel cellular marker for HGPIN and prostate cancer. Prostate. 2004;58:103‐108.

    Not in our library10.1002/pros.10343

  57. 57.

    Sandim V, Pereira D, Kalume DE, et al. Proteomic analysis reveals differentially secreted proteins in the urine from patients with clear cell renal cell carcinoma. Urol Oncol. 2016;34(5):e11‐25.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.urolonc.2015.07.016

  58. 58.

    Huebbe P, Rimbach G. Evolution of human apolipoprotein E (APOE) isoforms: Gene structure, protein function and interaction with dietary factors. Ageing Res Rev. 2017;37:146‐161.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.arr.2017.06.002

  59. 59.

    Trost Z, Marc J, Sok M, Cerne D. Increased apolipoprotein E gene expression and protein concentration in lung cancer tissue do not contribute to the clinical assessment of non‐small cell lung cancer patients. Arch Med Res. 2008;39:663‐667.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.arcmed.2008.06.009

  60. 60.

    Luo J, Song J, Feng P, et al. Elevated serum apolipoprotein E is associated with metastasis and poor prognosis of non‐small cell lung cancer. Tumour Biol. 2016;37:10715‐10721.

    Not in our library10.1007/s13277-016-4975-4

  61. 61.

    Sakashita K, Tanaka F, Zhang X, et al. Clinical significance of APOE expression in human gastric cancer. Oncol Rep. 2008;20:1313‐1319.

    Not in our library

  62. 62.

    Oue N, Hamai Y, Mitani Y, et al. Gene expression profile of gastric carcinoma: Identification of genes and tags potentially involved in invasion, metastasis, and carcinogenesis by serial analysis of gene expression. Cancer Res. 2004;64:2397‐2405.

    Not in our library10.1158/0008-5472.can-03-3514

  63. 63.

    Chen YC, Pohl G, Wang TL, et al. Apolipoprotein E is required for cell proliferation and survival in ovarian cancer. Cancer Res. 2005;65:331‐337.

    Not in our library

  64. 64.

    Kim Y‐W, Bae SM, Kim I‐W, et al. Multiplexed bead‐based immunoassay of four serum biomarkers for diagnosis of ovarian cancer. Oncol Rep. 2012;28:585‐591.

    Not in our library10.3892/or.2012.1829

  65. 65.

    Venanzoni M, Giunta S, Muraro G, et al. Apolipoprotein E expression in localized prostate cancers. Int J Oncol. 2003;22:779‐786.

    Not in our library

  66. 66.

    Martin P, Noonan S, Mullen MP, et al. Predicting response to vascular endothelial growth factor inhibitor and chemotherapy in metastatic colorectal cancer. BMC Cancer. 2014;14:887.

    Not in our library10.1186/1471-2407-14-887

  67. 67.

    Lindén M, Segersten U, Runeson M, et al. Tumour expression of bladder cancer‐associated urinary proteins. BJU Int. 2013;112:407‐415.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1464-410x.2012.11653.x

  68. 68.

    Urquidi V, Goodison S, Ross S, Chang M, Dai Y, Rosser CJ. Diagnostic potential of urinary alpha1‐antitrypsin and apolipoprotein E in the detection of bladder cancer. J Urol. 2012;188:2377‐2383.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.juro.2012.07.094

  69. 69.

    Chen J, Chen L‐J, Yang R‐B, et al. Expression and clinical significance of apolipoprotein E in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma. Med Oncol. 2013;30:583.

    Not in our library10.1007/s12032-013-0583-y

  70. 70.

    Xu X, Wan J, Yuan L, et al. Serum levels of apolipoprotein E correlates with disease progression and poor prognosis in breast cancer. Tumour Biol. 2016;37(12):15959‐15966.

    Not in our library10.1007/s13277-016-5453-8

  71. 71.

    Yokoyama Y, Kuramitsu Y, Takashima M, et al. Protein level of apolipoprotein E increased in human hepatocellular carcinoma. Int J Oncol. 2006;28:625‐631.

    Not in our library

  72. 72.

    Nicoll JA, Zunarelli E, Rampling R, Murray LS, Papanastassiou V, Stewart J. Involvement of apolipoprotein E in glioblastoma: immunohistochemistry and clinical outcome. NeuroReport. 2003;14:1923‐1926.

    Not in our library10.1097/00001756-200310270-00008

  73. 73.

    Tavazoie MF, Pollack I, Tanqueco R, et al. LXR/ApoE activation restricts innate immune suppression in cancer. Cell. 2018;172(825–840):e18.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.cell.2017.12.026

  74. 74.

    Pencheva N, Tran H, Buss C, et al. Convergent multi‐miRNA targeting of ApoE drives LRP1/LRP8‐dependent melanoma metastasis and angiogenesis. Cell. 2012;151:1068‐1082.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.cell.2012.10.028

  75. 75.

    Borchman D, Harris EN, Pierangeli SS, Lamba OP. Interactions and molecular structure of cardiolipin and beta 2‐glycoprotein 1 (beta 2‐GP1). Clin Exp Immunol. 1995;102:373‐378.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1365-2249.1995.tb03792.x

  76. 76.

    Jing X, Piao YF, Liu Y, Gao PJ. Beta2‐GPI: a novel factor in the development of hepatocellular carcinoma. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol. 2010;136:1671‐1680.

    Not in our library10.1007/s00432-010-0825-8

  77. 77.

    Mandili G, Notarpietro A, Khadjavi A, et al. Beta‐2‐glycoprotein‐1 and alpha‐1‐antitrypsin as urinary markers of renal cancer in von hippel‐lindau patients. Biomarkers. 2018;23:123‐130.

    Not in our library10.1080/1354750x.2016.1269132

  78. 78.

    Lee S‐W, Kim IJ, Jeong BY, et al. Use of MDLC‐DIGE and LC‐MS/MS to identify serum biomarkers for complete remission in patients with acute myeloid leukemia. Electrophoresis. 2012;33:1863‐1872.

    Not in our library10.1002/elps.201200047

  79. 79.

    Vanhollebeke B, Pays E. The function of apolipoproteins L. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2006;63:1937‐1944.

    Not in our library10.1007/s00018-006-6091-x

  80. 80.

    Chidiac M, Fayyad‐Kazan M, Daher J, et al. Apolipoproteinl1 is expressed in papillary thyroid carcinomas. Pathol Res Pract. 2016;212:631‐635.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.prp.2016.04.004

  81. 81.

    Chu J, Li N, Li F. A risk score staging system based on the expression of seven genes predicts the outcome of bladder cancer. Oncol Lett. 2018;16:2091‐2096.

    Not in our library10.3892/ol.2018.8904

  82. 82.

    Johanneson B, McDonnell SK, Karyadi DM, et al. Family‐based association analysis of 42 hereditary prostate cancer families identifies the apolipoprotein L3 region on chromosome 22q12 as a risk locus. Hum Mol Genet. 2010;19:3852‐3862.

    Not in our library10.1093/hmg/ddq283

  83. 83.

    Liu Z, Lu H, Jiang Z, Pastuszyn A, Hu CA. Apolipoprotein L6, a novel proapoptotic BCL‐2 homology 3‐only protein, induces mitochondria‐mediated apoptosis in cancer cells. Mol Cancer Res. 2005;3:21‐31.

    Not in our library

  84. 84.

    Zhu Y, Luo G, Jiang BO, et al. Apolipoprotein M promotes proliferation and invasion in non‐small cell lung cancers via upregulating S1PR1 and activating the ERK1/2 and PI3K/AKT signaling pathways. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2018;501:520‐526.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.bbrc.2018.05.029

  85. 85.

    Jiang J, Wu C, Luo G, et al. Expression of apolipoprotein M in human hepatocellular carcinoma tissues. Acta Histochem. 2011;113:53‐57.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.acthis.2009.08.005

  86. 86.

    Hu Y‐W, Chen Z‐P, Hu X‐M, et al. The miR‐573/apoM/Bcl2A1‐dependent signal transduction pathway is essential for hepatocyte apoptosis and hepatocarcinogenesis. Apoptosis. 2015;20:1321‐1337.

    Not in our library10.1007/s10495-015-1153-x

  87. 87.

    Luo G, Zhang X, Mu Q, et al. Expression and localization of apolipoprotein m in human colorectal tissues. Lipids Health Dis. 2010;9:102.

    Not in our library10.1186/1476-511x-9-102

  88. 88.

    Trougakos IP, Gonos ES. Clusterin/apolipoprotein J in human aging and cancer. Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 2002;34:1430‐1448.

    Not in our library10.1016/s1357-2725(02)00041-9

  89. 89.

    Tellez T, Garcia‐Aranda M, Redondo M. The role of clusterin in carcinogenesis and its potential utility as therapeutic target. Curr Med Chem. 2016;23:4297‐4308.

    Not in our library10.2174/0929867323666161024150540

  90. 90.

    Trougakos IP, So A, Jansen B, Gleave ME, Gonos ES. Silencing expression of the clusterin/apolipoprotein J gene in human cancer cells using small interfering RNA induces spontaneous apoptosis, reduced growth ability, and cell sensitization to genotoxic and oxidative stress. Cancer Res. 2004;64:1834‐1842.

    Not in our library10.1158/0008-5472.can-03-2664

  91. 91.

    Chi KN, Eisenhauer E, Fazli L, et al. A phase I pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic study of OGX‐011, a 2'‐methoxyethyl antisense oligonucleotide to clusterin, in patients with localized prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2005;97:1287‐1296.

    Not in our library10.1093/jnci/dji252

  92. 92.

    Saad F, Hotte S, North S, et al. Randomized phase II trial of custirsen (OGX‐011) in combination with docetaxel or mitoxantrone as second‐line therapy in patients with metastatic castrate‐resistant prostate cancer progressing after first‐line docetaxel: Cuog trial P‐06c. Clin Cancer Res. 2011;17:5765‐5773.

    Not in our library10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-11-0859

  93. 93.

    Miyake H, Muramaki M, Kurahashi T, et al. Expression of clusterin in prostate cancer correlates with gleason score but not with prognosis in patients undergoing radical prostatectomy without neoadjuvant hormonal therapy. Urology. 2006;68:609‐614.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.urology.2006.03.017

  94. 94.

    Kang YK, Hong SW, Lee H, Kim WH. Overexpression of clusterin in human hepatocellular carcinoma. Hum Pathol. 2004;35:1340‐1346.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.humpath.2004.07.021

  95. 95.

    Wang C, Jiang K, Kang X, et al. Tumor‐derived secretory clusterin induces epithelial‐mesenchymal transition and facilitates hepatocellular carcinoma metastasis. Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 2012;44:2308‐2320.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.biocel.2012.09.012

  96. 96.

    Xiu P, Xu Z, Liu F, et al. Downregulating sclu enhances the sensitivity of hepatocellular carcinoma cells to gemcitabine by activating the intrinsic apoptosis pathway. Dig Dis Sci. 2014;59:1798‐1809.

    Not in our library10.1007/s10620-014-3111-9

  97. 97.

    Xie D, Sham JS, Zeng WF, et al. Oncogenic role of clusterin overexpression in multistage colorectal tumorigenesis and progression. World J Gastroenterol. 2005;11:3285‐3289.

    Not in our library10.3748/wjg.v11.i21.3285

  98. 98.

    Redondo M, Rodrigo I, Alcaide J, et al. Clusterin expression is associated with decreased disease‐free survival of patients with colorectal carcinomas. Histopathology. 2010;56:932‐936.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1365-2559.2010.03565.x

  99. 99.

    Bertuzzi M, Marelli C, Bagnati R, et al. Plasma clusterin as a candidate pre‐diagnosis marker of colorectal cancer risk in the florence cohort of the european prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition: a pilot study. BMC Cancer. 2015;15:56.

    Not in our library10.1186/s12885-015-1058-7

  100. 100.

    Pucci S, Bonanno E, Pichiorri F, Angeloni C, Spagnoli LG. Modulation of different clusterin isoforms in human colon tumorigenesis. Oncogene. 2004;23:2298‐2304.

    Not in our library10.1038/sj.onc.1207404

  101. 101.

    Gunawardana CG, Kuk C, Smith CR, Batruch I, Soosaipillai A, Diamandis EP. Comprehensive analysis of conditioned media from ovarian cancer cell lines identifies novel candidate markers of epithelial ovarian cancer. J Proteome Res. 2009;8:4705‐4713.

    Not in our library10.1021/pr900411g

  102. 102.

    Yang GF, Li XM, Xie D. Overexpression of clusterin in ovarian cancer is correlated with impaired survival. Int J Gynecol Cancer. 2009;19:1342‐1346.

    Not in our library10.1111/igc.0b013e3181a83ed9

  103. 103.

    Lyu N, Wang Y, Wang J, Zhang Z, Kong W. Study on early diagnosis of epithelial ovarian cancer by analysis of plasma septin‐9 and clusterin level. J Cancer Res Ther. 2018;14:S444‐S449.

    Not in our library10.4103/0973-1482.181178

  104. 104.

    Redondo M, Villar E, Torres‐Munoz J, Tellez T, Morell M, Petito CK. Overexpression of clusterin in human breast carcinoma. Am J Pathol. 2000;157:393‐399.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0002-9440(10)64552-x

  105. 105.

    Yom CK, Woo HY, Min SY, Kang SY, Kim HS. Clusterin overexpression and relapse‐free survival in breast cancer. Anticancer Res. 2009;29:3909‐3912.

    Not in our library

  106. 106.

    Li J, Jia L, Zhao P, Jiang Y, Zhong S, Chen D. Stable knockdown of clusterin by vectorbased rna interference in a human breast cancer cell line inhibits tumour cell invasion and metastasis. J Int Med Res. 2012;40:545‐555.

    Not in our library10.1177/147323001204000216

  107. 107.

    Miyake H, Hara S, Arakawa S, Kamidono S, Hara I. Over expression of clusterin is an independent prognostic factor for nonpapillary renal cell carcinoma. J Urol. 2002;167:703‐706.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0022-5347(01)69130-4

  108. 108.

    Vange P, Bruland T, Doseth B, et al. The cytoprotective protein clusterin is overexpressed in hypergastrinemic rodent models of oxyntic preneoplasia and promotes gastric cancer cell survival. PLoS ONE. 2017;12:e0184514.

    Not in our library10.1371/journal.pone.0184514

  109. 109.

    Jin J, Kim J‐M, Hur Y‐S, et al. Clinical significance of clusterin expression in pancreatic adenocarcinoma. World J Surg Oncol. 2012;10:146.

    Not in our library10.1186/1477-7819-10-146

  110. 110.

    Albert JM, Gonzalez A, Massion PP, et al. Cytoplasmic clusterin expression is associated with longer survival in patients with resected non small cell lung cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2007;16:1845‐1851.

    Not in our library10.1158/1055-9965.epi-07-0146

  111. 111.

    Shapiro B, Tocci P, Haase G, Gavert N, Ben‐Ze'ev A. Clusterin, a gene enriched in intestinal stem cells, is required for L1‐mediated colon cancer metastasis. Oncotarget. 2015;6:34389‐34401.

    Not in our library10.18632/oncotarget.5360

  112. 112.

    Radziwon‐Balicka A, Santos‐Martinez MJ, Corbalan JJ, et al. Mechanisms of platelet‐stimulated colon cancer invasion: Role of clusterin and thrombospondin 1 in regulation of the P38MAPK‐MMP‐9 pathway. Carcinogenesis. 2014;35:324‐332.

    Not in our library10.1093/carcin/bgt332

  113. 113.

    Wang Y, Wang X, Zhao H, Liang B, Du Q. Clusterin confers resistance to TNF‐alpha‐induced apoptosis in breast cancer cells through NF‐kappaB activation and BCL‐2 overexpression. J Chemother. 2012;24:348‐357.

    Not in our library10.1179/1973947812y.0000000049

  114. 114.

    Mathew R, Karantza‐Wadsworth V, White E. Role of autophagy in cancer. Nat Rev Cancer. 2007;7:961‐967.

    Not in our library10.1038/nrc2254

  115. 115.

    Fulda S. Autophagy in cancer therapy. Front Oncol. 2017;7:128.

    Not in our library10.3389/fonc.2017.00128

  116. 116.

    Mowers EE, Sharifi MN, Macleod KF. Autophagy in cancer metastasis. Oncogene. 2017;36:1619‐1630.

    Not in our library10.1038/onc.2016.333

  117. 117.
    Autophagy and chemotherapy resistance: a promising therapeutic target for cancer treatment · 2013
    No notice
  118. 118.

    Levy J, Towers CG, Thorburn A. Targeting autophagy in cancer. Nat Rev Cancer. 2017;17:528‐542.

    Not in our library10.1038/nrc.2017.53

  119. 119.

    Christian P, Sacco J, Adeli K. Autophagy: emerging roles in lipid homeostasis and metabolic control. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2013;1831:819‐824.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.bbalip.2012.12.009

  120. 120.

    Pan M, Maitin V, Parathath S, et al. Presecretory oxidation, aggregation, and autophagic destruction of apoprotein‐B: a pathway for late‐stage quality control. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2008;105:5862‐5867.

    Not in our library10.1073/pnas.0707460104

  121. 121.

    Ginsberg HN, Fisher EA. The ever‐expanding role of degradation in the regulation of apolipoprotein b metabolism. J Lipid Res. 2009;50(Suppl):S162‐S166.

    Not in our library10.1194/jlr.r800090-jlr200

  122. 122.

    Conlon DM, Thomas T, Fedotova T, et al. Inhibition of apolipoprotein B synthesis stimulates endoplasmic reticulum autophagy that prevents steatosis. J Clin Invest. 2016;126:3852‐3867.

    Not in our library10.1172/jci86028

  123. 123.

    Parcon PA, Balasubramaniam M, Ayyadevara S, et al. Apolipoprotein E4 inhibits autophagy gene products through direct, specific binding to clear motifs. Alzheimers Dement. 2018;14:230‐242.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.jalz.2017.07.754

  124. 124.

    Wan G, Zhaorigetu S, Liu Z, Kaini R, Jiang Z, Hu CA. Apolipoprotein L1, a novel BCL‐2 homology domain 3‐only lipid‐binding protein, induces autophagic cell death. J Biol Chem. 2008;283:21540‐21549.

    Not in our library10.1074/jbc.m800214200

  125. 125.

    Zhaorigetu S, Yang Z, Toma I, McCaffrey TA, Hu CA. Apolipoprotein L6, induced in atherosclerotic lesions, promotes apoptosis and blocks beclin 1‐dependent autophagy in atherosclerotic cells. J Biol Chem. 2011;286:27389‐27398.

    Not in our library10.1074/jbc.m110.210245

  126. 126.

    Wang B, Feng D, Han L, et al. Combination of apolipoprotein A1‐modi liposome‐doxorubicin with autophagy inhibitors overcame drug resistance in vitro. J Pharm Sci. 2014;103:3994‐4004.

    Not in our library10.1002/jps.24216

  127. 127.

    Morry J, Ngamcherdtrakul W, Yantasee W. Oxidative stress in cancer and fibrosis: opportunity for therapeutic intervention with antioxidant compounds, enzymes, and nanoparticles. Redox Biol. 2017;11:240‐253.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.redox.2016.12.011

  128. 128.

    Galaris D, Skiada V, Barbouti A. Redox signaling and cancer: the role of "labile" iron. Cancer Lett. 2008;266:21‐29.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.canlet.2008.02.038

  129. 129.

    Pani G, Galeotti T, Chiarugi P. Metastasis: cancer cell's escape from oxidative stress. Cancer Metastasis Rev. 2010;29:351‐378.

    Not in our library10.1007/s10555-010-9225-4

  130. 130.

    Bajo‐Grañeras R, Crespo‐Sanjuan J, García‐Centeno RM, et al. Expression and potential role of apolipoprotein D on the death‐survival balance of human colorectal cancer cells under oxidative stress conditions. Int J Colorectal Dis. 2013;28:751‐766.

    Not in our library10.1007/s00384-012-1616-2

  131. 131.

    Yiu CC, Sasano H, Ono K, Chow LW. Changes in protein expression after neoadjuvant use of aromatase inhibitors in primary breast cancer: a proteomic approach to search for potential biomarkers to predict response or resistance. Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 2010;19(Suppl 1):S79‐89.

    Not in our library10.1517/13543781003701011

  132. 132.

    Cruz IN, Coley HM, Kramer HB, et al. Proteomics analysis of ovarian cancer cell lines and tissues reveals drug resistance‐associated proteins. Cancer Genomics Proteomics. 2017;14:35‐51.

    Not in our library10.21873/cgp.20017

  133. 133.

    Soiland H, Skaland I, Varhaug JE, et al. Co‐expression of estrogen receptor alpha and apolipoprotein D in node positive operable breast cancer–possible relevance for survival and effects of adjuvant tamoxifen in postmenopausal patients. Acta Oncol. 2009;48:514‐521.

    Not in our library10.1080/02841860802620613

  134. 134.

    Liu M, Feng LX, Sun P, et al. Knockdown of apolipoprotein E enhanced sensitivity of HEP3B cells to cardiac steroids via regulating na+/k+‐ATPASE signalosome. Mol Cancer Ther. 2016;15:2955‐2965.

    Not in our library10.1158/1535-7163.mct-15-0961

  135. 135.

    Gleave ME, Miyake H, Zellweger T, et al. Use of antisense oligonucleotides targeting the antiapoptotic gene, clusterin/testosterone‐repressed prostate message 2, to enhance androgen sensitivity and chemosensitivity in prostate cancer. Urology. 2001;58:39‐49.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0090-4295(01)01241-9

  136. 136.

    Chun YJ. Knockdown of clusterin expression increases the in vitro sensitivity of human prostate cancer cells to paclitaxel. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2014;77:1443‐1450.

    Not in our library10.1080/15287394.2014.951760

  137. 137.

    Zellweger T, Chi K, Miyake H, et al. Enhanced radiation sensitivity in prostate cancer by inhibition of the cell survival protein clusterin. Clin Cancer Res. 2002;8:3276‐3284.

    Not in our library

  138. 138.

    Muramaki M, So A, Hayashi N, et al. Chemosensitization of gemcitabine‐resistant human bladder cancer cell line both in vitro and in vivo using antisense oligonucleotide targeting the anti‐apoptotic gene, clusterin. BJU Int. 2009;103:384‐390.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1464-410x.2008.08098.x

  139. 139.

    Wang X, Luo L, Dong D, Yu Q, Zhao K. Clusterin plays an important role in clear renal cell cancer metastasis. Urol Int. 2014;92:95‐103.

    Not in our library10.1159/000351923

  140. 140.

    Lee C‐H, Jin RJ, Kwak C, et al. Suppression of clusterin expression enhanced cisplatin‐induced cytotoxicity on renal cell carcinoma cells. Urology. 2002;60:516‐520.

    Not in our library10.1016/s0090-4295(02)01806-x

  141. 141.

    Kususda Y, Miyake H, Gleave ME, Fujisawa M. Clusterin inhibition using OGX‐011 synergistically enhances antitumour activity of sorafenib in a human renal cell carcinoma model. Br J Cancer. 2012;106:1945‐1952.

    Not in our library10.1038/bjc.2012.209

  142. 142.

    Chen Q, Wang Z, Zhang K, et al. Clusterin confers gemcitabine resistance in pancreatic cancer. World J Surg Oncol. 2011;9:59.

    Not in our library10.1186/1477-7819-9-59

  143. 143.
    Knockdown of clusterin sensitizes pancreatic cancer cells to gemcitabine chemotherapy by ERK1/2 inactivation · 2012
    Not checked
  144. 144.

    Park DC, Yeo SG, Shin EY, Mok SC, Kim DH. Clusterin confers paclitaxel resistance in cervical cancer. Gynecol Oncol. 2006;103:996‐1000.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.ygyno.2006.06.037

  145. 145.

    Lourda M, Trougakos IP, Gonos ES. Development of resistance to chemotherapeutic drugs in human osteosarcoma cell lines largely depends on up‐regulation of clusterin/apolipoprotein J. Int J Cancer. 2007;120:611‐622.

    Not in our library10.1002/ijc.22327

  146. 146.

    Sung H, Siegel RL, Torre LA, et al. Global patterns in excess body weight and the associated cancer burden. CA Cancer J Clin. 2018;69:88‐112.

    Not in our library10.3322/caac.21499

  147. 147.

    Calle EE, Thun MJ. Obesity and cancer. Oncogene. 2004;23:6365‐6378.

    Not in our library10.1038/sj.onc.1207751

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