Prescription stimulants in individuals with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: misuse, cognitive impact, and adverse effects

Abstract

Prescription stimulants are often used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ). Drugs like methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta), dextroamphetamine (Dexedrine), and dextroamphetamine‐amphetamine (Adderall) help people with ADHD feel more focused. However, misuse of stimulants by ADHD and nonaffected individuals has dramatically increased over recent years based on students' misconceptions or simple lack of knowledge of associated risks. In this review, we discuss recent advances in the use and increasing misuse of prescription stimulants among high school and college students and athletes. Given the widespread belief that stimulants enhance performance, there are in fact only a few studies reporting the cognitive enhancing effects of stimulants in ADHD and nonaffected individuals. Student athletes should be apprised of the very serious consequences that can emerge when stimulants are used to improve sports performance. Moreover, misuse of stimulants is associated with dangers including psychosis, myocardial infarction, cardiomyopathy, and even sudden death. As ADHD medications are prescribed for long‐term treatment, there is a need for long‐term safety studies and education on the health risks associated with misuse is imperative.

Shown for reading. Its publisher allows quoting it, not republishing it.

References 139

1. 1.

   Advokat C. What are the cognitive effects of stimulant medications? Emphasis on adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2010;34:1256-1266.

   Not in our library10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.03.006

2. 2.

   Advokat CD, Guidry MS, Martino BA. Licit and illicit use of medications for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in undergraduate college students. J. Am. Coll. Health. 2008;56:601-607.

   Not in our library10.3200/jach.56.6.601-606

3. 3.

   Alsidawi S, Muth J, Wilkin J. Adderall induced inverted-Takotsubo cardiomyopathy. Catheter. Cardiovasc. Interv. 2011;78:910-913.

   Not in our library10.1002/ccd.23036

4. 4.

   Amariles P. A comprehensive literature search: drugs as possible triggers of Takotsubo cardiomyopathy. Curr. Clin. Pharmacol. 2011;6:1-11.

   Not in our library10.2174/157488411794941340

5. 5.

   DSM-IV-TR. 2000.

   Not in our library10.1176/appi.ps.51.10.1299

6. 6.

   ADHD exemptions on rise in MLB. 2009.

   Not in our library

7. 7.

   Barch DM, Carter CS. Amphetamine improves cognitive function in medicated individuals with schizophrenia and in healthy volunteers. Schizophrenia Res. 2005;77:43-58.

   Not in our library10.1016/j.schres.2004.12.019

8. 8.

   Barkley RA, Cunningham CE. Do stimulant drugs improve the academic performance of hyperkinetic children? A review of outcome studies. Clin. Pediatr. (Phila.). 1978;17:85-92.

   Not in our library10.1177/000992287801700112

9. 9.

   Barrett SP, Darredeau C, Brody LK, Pihl RO. Characteristics of methylphenidate misuse in a university student sample. Can. J. Psychiatry. 2005;50:457-461.

   Not in our library10.1177/070674370505000805

10. 10.

    Biederman J, Monuteaux MC, Mick E, Spencer T, Wilens TE, Silva JM, et al. Young adult outcome of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a controlled 10 year prospective follow-up study. Psychol. Med. 2006;36:167-179.

    Not in our library10.1017/s0033291705006410

11. 11.

    Biederman J, Petty CR, Fried R, Kaiser R, Dolan CR, Schoenfeld S, et al. Educational and occupational underattainment in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a controlled study. J. Clin. Psychiatry. 2008a;69:1217-1222.

    Not in our library10.4088/jcp.v69n0803

12. 12.

    Biederman J, Seidman LJ, Petty CR, Fried R, Doyle AE, Cohen DR, et al. Effects of stimulant medication on neuropsychological functioning in young adults with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry. 2008b;69:1150-1156.

    Not in our library10.4088/jcp.v69n0715

13. 13.

    Biederman J, Fried R, Petty CR, Henin A, Wozniak J, Corkum L, et al. Examining the association between stimulant treatment and cognitive outcomes across the life cycle of adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a controlled cross-sectional study. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 2012;200:69-75.

    Not in our library10.1097/nmd.0b013e31823e55ef

14. 14.

    Bloom B, Cohen RA. Summary health statistics for U.S. children: National Health Interview Survey, 2006. Statistics VH. 2007;234:1-79.

    Not in our library

15. 15.

    Bogle KE, Smith BH. Illcit methylphenidate use: a review of prevalence, availability, pharmacology, and consequences. Curr. Drug Abuse Rev. 2009;2:157-176.

    Not in our library10.2174/1874473710902020157

16. 16.

    Bray CL, Cahill KS, Oshier JT, Peden CS, Theriaque DW, Flotte TR, et al. Methylphenidate does not improve cognitive function in healthy sleep-deprived young adults. J. Invest. Med. 2004;52:192-201.

    Not in our library10.1136/jim-52-03-34

17. 17.

    Breitenstein C, Wailke S, Bushuven S, Kamping S, Zwitserlood P, Ringelstein EB, et al. D-amphetamine boosts language learning independent of its cardiovascular and motor arousing effects. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2004;29:1704-1714.

    Not in our library10.1038/sj.npp.1300464

18. 18.

    Breitenstein C, Floel A, Korsukewitz C, Waike S, Bushuven S, Knecht S. A shift paradigm: from noradrenergic to dopaminergic modulation of learning? J. Neurol. Sci. 2006;248:42-47.

    Not in our library10.1016/j.jns.2006.05.012

19. 19.

    Brignell CM, Rosenthal J, Curran HV. Pharmacological manipulations of arousal and memory for emotional material: effects of a single dose of methylphenidate or lorazepam. J. Psychopharmacol. 2007;21:673-683.

    Not in our library10.1177/0269881107077351

20. 20.

    Brown RT, Amler RW, Freeman WS, Perrin JM, Stein MT, Feldman HM, et al. Treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: overview of the evidence. Pediatrics. 2005;115:e749-e757.

    Not in our library10.1542/peds.2004-2560

21. 21.

    Brumaghim JT, Klormart R. Methylphenidate's effects on paired-association learning and event-related potentials of young adults. Psychophysiology. 1998;35:73-85.

    Not in our library

22. 22.

    Burns JT, House RF, Fensch FC, Miller JG. Effects of magnesium pemoline and dextroamphetamine on human learning. Science. 1967;155:849-851.

    Not in our library10.1126/science.155.3764.849

23. 23.

    Callaway E. Presidential address. 1982: the pharmacology of human information processing. Psychophysiology. 1983;20:359-370.

    Not in our library10.1111/j.1469-8986.1983.tb00915.x

24. 24.

    Camp-Bruno JA, Herting RL. Cognitive effects of milacemide and methylphenidate in healthy young adults. Psychopharmacology. 1994;115:46-52.

    Not in our library10.1007/bf02244750

25. 25.

    Mental health in the United States. Prevalence of diagnosis and medication treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder – United States, 2003. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 2005a;54:842-847.

    Not in our library

26. 26.

    Prevalence of diagnosis and medication treatment for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder – United States, 2003. MMWR Morbid. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 2005b;54:842-847.

    Not in our library

27. 27.

    Increasing prevalence of parent-reported attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder among children – United States, 2003 and 2007. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 2010;59:1439-1443.

    Not in our library

28. 28.

    Chen JP. Methamphetamine-associated acute myocardial infarction and cardiogenic shock with normal coronary arteries: refractory global coronary microvascular spasm. J. Invasive Cardiol. 2007;19:E89-E92.

    Not in our library

29. 29.

    Clatworthy PL, Lewis SJ, Brichard L, Hong YT, Izquierdo D, Clark L, et al. Dopamine release in dissociable striatal subregions predicts the different effects of oral methylphenidate on reversal learning and spatial working memory. J. Neurosci. 2009;29:4690-4696.

    Not in our library10.1523/jneurosci.3266-08.2009

30. 30.

    Cooper NJ, Keage H, Hermens D, Williams LM, Debrota D, Clark CR. The dose-dependent effect of methylphenidate on performance, cognition, and psychophysiology. J. Integrative Neurosci. 2005;4:123-144.

    Not in our library10.1142/s0219635205000744

31. 31.

    Cooper WO, Habel LA, Sox CM, Chan KA, Arbogast PG, Cheetham TC, et al. ADHD drugs and serious cardiovascular events in children and young adults. N. Engl. J. Med. 2011;365:1896-1904.

    Not in our library10.1056/nejmoa1110212

32. 32.

    2008.

    Not in our library

33. 33.

    Dodds CM, Muller U, Clark L, van Loon A, Cools R, Robbins TW. Methylphenidate has differential effects on blood oxygenation level-dependent signal related to cognitive subprocesses of reversal learning. J. Neurosci. 2008;28:5976-5982.

    Not in our library10.1523/jneurosci.1153-08.2008

34. 34.

    Dopheide JA, Pliszka SR. Attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder: an update. Pharmacotherapy. 2009;29:656-679.

    Not in our library10.1592/phco.29.6.656

35. 35.

    Elia J, Ambrosini PJ, Rapoport JL. Treatment of attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder. N. Engl. J. Med. 1999;340:780-788.

    Not in our library10.1056/nejm199903113401007

36. 36.

    Elliott R, Sahakian BJ, Matthews K, Bannerjea A, Rimmer J, Robbins TW. Effects of methylphenidate on spatial working memory and planning in healthy young adults. Psychopharmacology. 1997;131:196-206.

    Not in our library10.1007/s002130050284

37. 37.

    Meeting highlights from the committee for medicinal products for human use, 16–19 July 2007. 2007.

    Not in our library

38. 38.

    Farah MJ, Halmm C, Sankoorikal G, Smith ME, Chatterjee A. When we enhance cognition with Adderall, do we sacrifice creativity? A preliminary study. Psychopharmacology. 2009;202:541-547.

    Not in our library10.1007/s00213-008-1369-3

39. 39.

    Faraone SV, Glatt SJ. A comparison of the efficacy of medications for adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder using meta-analysis of effect sizes. J. Clin. Psychiatry. 2010;71:754-763.

    Not in our library10.4088/jcp.08m04902pur

40. 40.

    Faraone SV, Biederman J, Jetton JG, Tsuang MT. Attention deficit disorder and conduct disorder: longitudinal evidence for a familial subtype. Psychol. Med. 1997;27:291-300.

    Not in our library10.1017/s0033291796004515

Cited by papers we hold 1

• Associations of sleep disturbance with ADHD: implications for treatment · 2014
  No notice

Reads

A person counts once a day per paper. We keep no cookie and no address: a reader is a hash that changes every day. Any month under five reads shows no number.